History of Islam
(Up to the Demise of the Prophet)

Mahdi Pishva'i
Translated by: Dr. Mahmoud Farrokhpey

Footnotes

[1] Husayn Qarachanlu, Haramayn Sharifayn, pp. 9.

[2] This equals one third of Europe, six times the area of France, nine times the total areas of west Germany and East Germany put together, ten tines the area of Italy, eighty times the area of Switzer land, and twice the area of Iran.

[3] Cosmological Institution, the cosmology of countries, pp. 205.

[4] Phillip Khalil Hitti, History of the Arabs.

[5] `Ali Akbar Fayyaz, Tarikh Islam, pp. 2; Alber Male and Joel Isaac, History of the Middle Ages up to the One-Hundred Year War, pp. 95.

[6] Phillip Hitti, Op cit, pp. 24.

[7] Al-Maqdisi, a Muslim scientist of the fourth century, considers the Arabian Peninsula to contain four large section: Hijaz, Yemen, Oman and Hajr; see Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma`rifat al-Aqalim, pp. 102. However, others state that it includes five sections: Tihamah, Hijaz, Najd, Yemen and `Aruz; see Abu’l-Fida, Taqwim al-Buldan, pp. 104; Yaqut al-Hamawi, Mu`jam al-Buldan, pp. 101 & 214; Shukri al-alusi al-Baghdadi, Bulugh al-Irab fi Ma`rifat Ahwal al-`Arab, 1:187; Jawad `Ali, al-Mufassal fi Tarikh al-`Arab Qabl al-Islam, 1:167.

There are other subdivisions, the descriptions of which are not useful now; see Gustav Le Bon: The Civilization of Islam and Arabs, pp. 31.

[8] Yahya Nuri, Islam wa `Aqa'id wa ara' Bashari (Islam, Doctrines and Human Beliefs), pp. 231-234.

[9] Sayyid Ja`far Shahidi, Tarikh Tahlili Islam, pp. 3.

[10] Ahmad Husayn Sharaf al-Din, al-Yaman `Ibr al-Tarikh (The Yemen in History), pp. 53.

[11] Gustav Le Bon: The Civilization Of Islam And Arabs, pp. 92.

[12] Mahmud Shukri Al-alusi al-Baghdadi, Bulugh al-Irab fi Ma`rifat Ahwal al-`Arab, 1:204.

[13] Georgi Zaydan, the History of the Islamic Civilization, pp. 3.

[14] Al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab wa Ma`adin al-Jawhar, 2:89, pp. 132.

[15] The Ma'rib Dam is located 192 Kilometers on the eastern section of Sana’a, the present capital of Yemen.

[16] For further knowledge concerning the features of the scientific plan for this dam, see Dictionary of the Qur’anic Tales by sadr Balaghi, pp. 82-88; Ahmad Husayn Sharaf al-Din, al-Yaman `Ibr al-Tarikh, pp. 122-132.

[17] Georgie Zaydan, the History of the Islamic Civilization, 1:11.

[18] Will Durant, the History of Civilization, 1: 341.

[19] Phillip Hitti, History of the Arabs, pp. 64; Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of Islam and the Arabs, pp. 94; Ahmad Husayn Sharaf al-Din, al-Yaman `Ibr al-Tarikh, pp. 105; al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab, 1:203.

[20] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, The Political History of Islam 1:32.

[21] Hamzah Isfahani, Tarikh Muluk al-Arz wa’l-Anbiya' (the History of the Prophets and the Kings), pp. 120 & 132.

[22] Abu-Rayhan al-Bayruni: Al-athar al-Baqiyah, pp. 181.

[23] Mu`jam al-Buldan 7:355.

[24] Tubba` (plural of which is Tababi`ah) was the title of the Himyarite Kings in Yemen. These were two classes: the first class included the kings of Saba and Ridan who rules from 115 BC to 275 AD. The second class included the kings of Saba, Ridan, Hazramawt and Shahr who ruled from 275 to 533 AD: Ahmad Husayn Sharaf al-Din, Al-Yaman `Ibr al-Tarikh, pp. 90-97.

[25] Hamzah Isfahani, The History of the Prophets and Kings, pp. 99, 119; Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, the Political History of Islam, pp. 44; Abu-Rayhan al-Bayruni, al-athar al-Baqiyah, pp. 181,183.

[26] Carl Brockleman, the History of Nations and Islamic States, pp. 5.

[27] Georgie Zaydan, History Of The Islamic Civilization 1:15.

[28] Gustav Le Bon, History Of The Islamic Civilization 1:88.

[29] Phillip Hitti, History of the Arabs, pp. 14.

[30] Phillip Hitti, History of the Arabs, pp. 33-35.

[31] Gustav Le Bon, History Of The Islamic Civilization 1:65; Will Durant, The Story Of Civilization; The Age of Faith 4:201.

[32] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 46.

[33] Ibid, pp. 33-34. al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir, king of al-Hirah, in reply to Khosrow the Persian king who asked him why the Arab nation does not live under a unified governmental system, answered, “Other nations who feel weak and fear the enemy's attacks submit their control under one family, submitting to them their affairs. But all the Arabs want to be kings and hate paying taxes or tributes.” See al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab… 1:150.

[34] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 225; `Abd al-Mun`im Majid: al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li’l-Dawlah al-`Arabiyyah (Political History of the Arab State), pp. 48.

[35] Karl Brockelman, History Of The Islamic States And Peoples.

[36] He was also called ra'is (chief), amir (prince), and sayyid (master). See `Abd al-Mun`im Majid, al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li’l-Dawlah al-`Arabiyyah, pp. 49.

[37] `Abd al-Mun`im Majid, al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li’l-Dawlah al-`Arabiyyah, pp. 49.

[38] Al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab…1:187.

[39] Phillip Hitti, The Arab History, pp. 39.

[40] Phillip Hitti, The Arab History, pp. 38.

[41] Will Durant, Op cit, 4:200.

[42] Ahmad Amin, Op cit, pp. 10.

[43] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, The Political History of Islam 1:37-8.

[44] Shaykh al-saduq, Thawab al-A`mal wa `Iqab al-A`mal, pp. 263; Shaykh al-Kulayni, al-Usul min al-Kafi, 2:308.

[45] Sunan Abi-Dawud, Ch. Al-Adab, S. fi al-`Asabiyyah, pp. 332, H. 512.

[46] sahih al-Bukhari, Ch. Al-Mazalim, 2:66; Musnad Ahmad, 3:201.

[47] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, the Political History of Islam, pp. 39.

[48] Brockleman, op cit, pp. 6-7.

[49] Al-Nuwayri, Nihayat al-Irab fi Funun al-Adab 6:67.

[50] Al-alusi, op cit, 1:281.

[51] Sayyid Muhammad Husayn tabataba'i, al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an 30:353; al-alusi, op cit, 1:279.

[52] For instance, if one's father was Arab, but his mother was non-Arab, he was insultingly referred to as hajin, which indicated the concept of inferiority; in the reverse situation, he used to be called mudharra`. Hajin was deprived of inheritance. See Ibn `Abd Rabbih al-Andalusi, al-`Iqd al-Farid 6:129. A hajin male had to marry a woman of his own standing. See Muhammad ibn Habib, al-Muhabbar, pp. 310; al-Shahristani, al-Milal wa’l-Nihal, pp. 254.

In Islam, when he was asked about the blood-money of a hajin, the Holy Prophet replied, “The blood money of all followers of Islam is the same.” See Ibn Shahrashub, al-Manaqib 1:113.

[53] Jawad `Ali, al-Mufassal fi Tarikh al-`Arab Qabl al-Islam 1:493; Shawqi ®ayf, Tarikh al-Adab al-`Arabi, al-`Asr al-Jahili, pp. 55.

[54] Al-alusi, op cit, 1:149. At the beginning of Islam, `Umar Ibn al-Khattab, who was strongly influenced by this kind of thinking, and who showed his dissatisfaction towards the Iraqi Nabataean who used to refer to their locations in their names, told them: Always remember your familial bonds and parentage and stop being like the Iraqi Nabataean who, when asked about their families, would refer to their place of birth or to the location of their residence. See Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, pp. 162; Al-Andalusi, op cit, 3:312.

[55] Bulugh al-Irab… 3:182; also refer to al-Mufassal fi Tarikh al-`Arab Qabl al-Islam 1:466-4667.

[56] On the word of a narration reported from Imam al-sadiq (a.s) and some books of exegesis of the Holy Qur'an, the Arabic word qaba'il mentioned in the aforementioned holy verse refers to the Arab tribes, while the word shu`ub refers to the non-Arabs. (See al-tabrisi, Majma` al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an, Exegesis of Surah al-Hujurat, verse 13)

[57] Shaykh al-Kulayni, al-Rawzah min al-Kafi, pp. 246; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar 21:137-8; Sirat Ibn Husham 4:54.

[58] Ibn Shu`bah al-Harrani: Tuhaf al-`Uqul, pp. 34.

[59] Shaykh al-Kulayni, op cit, p. 181.

[60] Muhammad Ahmad Jad al-Mawla Bek, `Ali Muhammad al-Bajjawi, Muhammad Abu’l-Fazl Ibrahim: Ayyam al-`Arab fi al-Jahiliyyah, pp. 142-168; Ibn al-Athir: al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh 1:523-539.

[61] Ibn Husham: Sirat al-Nabi 1:307; Yaqut al-Hamawi: Mu`jam al-Buldan 1:268.

Ibn al-Athir (in al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh 1:566-582) and Jad al-Mawla Beck (in Ayyam al-`Arab pp. 246-277) consider the owner of the two horses to be one person namely, Qays.

[62] Brockleman, op cit, pp. 8.

[63] sahih al-Bukhari 8:327-8, H. 893. Similar to this is mentioned in Sunan Abi-Dawud 4:271.

[64] Gustav Le Bon, op cit, pp. 63,

[65] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, op cit, 1:38.

[66] Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun 1:285-286.

[67] Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 9; Phillip Hitti, op cit, pp. 35; Hamasat Abi-Tammam, pp. 32, Calcutta: Leisi Publishing House, 1895 AD.

[68] tabataba'i: al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an 9:272.

[69] By exchanging the names of the months and through postponing and procrastinating the forbidden months, the Arabs were engaged in wars during these months. For this very reason, God said:

“Postponing of the sacred month is only an addition in unbelief, where with those who disbelieve are led astray, violating it one year and keeping it sacred another, that they may agree in numb of months that Allah has made sacred, and thus violate what Allah has made sacred; the evil of their doings is made fair-seeming to them; and Allah does not guide the unbelieving people.”

[70] Sayyid Muhammad Husayn tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, 2:267.

[71] Abu’l-`Abbas al-Mubarrad: al-Kamil fi al-Lughah wa’l-Adab 1:393. Muhammad ibn Habib, al-Muhabbar, pp. 324.

[72] Shaykh al-Kulayni, al-Furu` min al-Kafi 6:406.

[73] tabataba’i, op cit 4:254-258; al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur 2:131-132; al-Shahristani, al-Milal wa’l-Nihal 2:254; Hasan, Women's Rights in Islam and Europe, pp. 34. The one who married his stepmother after his father’s death was named ®ayzan. (Muhammad ibn Habib, al-Muhabbar, pp. 325) Ibn Qutaybah al-Daynawari has named some these women who married their stepsons upon their husbands’ death (al-Ma`arif, p112.)

[74] tabataba’i, op cit, 4:258; Tafsir al-tabari 4:207.

[75] tabataba’i, op cit, 2: 267.

[76] Shaykh `Abbas al-Qummi, Safinat al-Bihar 1:197; Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah 13:174; Shaykh al-Kulayni, al-Usul min al-Kafi 18:163; al-Qurtubi, Tafsir Jami` al-Ahkam 19:232.

[77] Al-Qurtubi, op cit pp. 232.

[78] Al-Mubarrad, op cit, 1:392; Ibn Abi’l-Hadid op cit, 13:179.

[79] Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, op cit, 13:174.

[80] Al-alusi, op cit, 1:324; Tarikh al-Ya`qubi, 2:10.

[81] Al-alusi, op cit, 3:45; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 1:240.

[82] Muhammad Abu’l-Fazl Ibrahim, et al, Qisas al-`Arab 2:31, Abu’l-`Abbas al-Mubarrad, op cit, pp. 394.

Al-Farazdaq, a Muslim poet, took pride in his grandfather, sa`sa`ah, for he had objected to burying newborn girls alive. See al-Qurtubi, Tafsir Jami` al-Ahkam, 19:232.

[83] Abu’l-`Abbas al-Mubarrad, op cit, 1:394.

[84] Ibn al-Athir, Usd al-Ghabah, 4:220.

It is narrated that Qays ibn `asim converted to Islam and came to the Prophet, saying, “Before Islam, I buried eight of my daughters alive. How could I make up for it now?” The Prophet replied, “Free eight slaves for what you have done.” He said, “I have many camels.” The Prophet replied, “If you wish, you may slaughter eight camels.” See al-Qurtubi, Tafsir Jami` al-Ahkam 19:233.

[85] Ibn Husham, op cit, 2:75.

[86] Gustav le Bon, the civilization of Islam and the Arabs, pp. 64-65. Will Durant writes concerning this topic, “The nomad was kind, generous and savage; he was Jealous, miser and traitor; he was and dissolute and conservative. Despite his poverty, he was generous; he faced the world with elegance.” See The Story of Civilization 4:201.

[87] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 76.

[88] Phillip Hitti, the Arab History, pp. 33-35.

[89] Murtaza al-`amili, al-sahih mi Sirat al-Rasul al-A`zam, 1:50-54.

[90] Mahmud Shukri al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:303.

[91] For further information for the superstitions of the Arabs before Islam, see Bulugh al-Irab 2:303-367; Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah 19:382-429.

[92] al-alusi, op cit, 3:182, 223, 261, and 327.

[93] Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun 2:1034.

[94] Futuh al-Buldan, pp. 457-454.

[95] Will Durant, the Story of Civilization 4:202.

[96] Al-Mu`allaqat al-Sab`ah.

[97] Concerning these marts, see Bulugh al-Irab 2:264-270.

[98] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, the political History of Islam 1:24.

[99] Fajr al-Islam, pp. 29.

[100] The Jews mostly lived in Yathrib, Fadak and Tayma. A few of them lived in ta’if. However, there is no indication of any Jew population in Mecca.

[101] Georgi Zaydan, the History of the Islamic civilization, 1:16.

[102] sahih al-Bukhari 9:136.

[103] Tafsir al-tabari 4:25; Zahiyah Qaddurah, Al-Shu`ubiyyah, pp. 24; Ahmad Amin, ²uhr al-Islam 1:18.

[104] Qisas al-`Arab 2:358; Ibn Kathir, al-Bidayah wa’l-Nihayah 3:144.

[105] al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 1:311-313; Muhammad Ibn `Abd-Rabbih, al-`Iqd al-Farid 2:20; Ibn Qutaybah, al-Ma`arif, 608.

[106] Ahmad Amin, ²uhr al-Islam 1:19.

[107] The direct reason for this war was the following: Khosrow willed to marry the daughter of al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir, the king of al-Hirah. Upon his refusal, he was called to the Iranian court and was put in prison where he died. Khosrow ordered Hani ibn Mas`ud al-Shaybani to submit al-Nu`man’s wealth to him. He, however, refused to do so. Later, Khosrow dispatched an army to fight Banu-Shayban. Khosrow lost that war. See Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh 1:485-484; al-Maqdisi: al-Bad’ wa’l-Tarikh 3:26.

[108] Ahmad Amin, ²uhr al-Islam 1:19; Mas`udi, al-Tanbih wa’l-Ishraf, pp. 209; Jalal al-Din Homayi, Shu`ubiyyah, pp. 11-12.

[109] Jawad `Ali, al-Mufassal 1:41-42.

[110] `Umar Farrukh, sadr al-Islam wa’l-Dawlah al-Umawiyyah, pp. 39.

[111] tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 4:151-155; Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 74-78; al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 1:15-18; Shawqi ®ayf, Tarikh al-Adab al-`Arabi 1:39.

Confirming this piece of information, jahl is the opposite of hikmah (wisdom) according to some narrations reported in reliable reference books like al-Kafi.

[112] Jawad `Ali says: “In my view, jahiliyyah is stemmed from stupidity, pride, anger, arrogance and stubbornness towards God's commands. These features are strongly condemned by Islam. In our days, we rebuke a stupid person who utters taboo or nasty words by the following expression: Go away, you ignorant and silly one. This does not mean that he is illiterate.” See al-Mufassal, 1:40.

[113] Nahj al-Balaghah, Sermon 95.

[114] Hanif (pl. Hunafa') is one following the religion of Prophet Abraham. See tabarsi, Majma` al-Bayan 1:216.

[115] Muhammad Ibn Habib, al-Muhabbar, pp. 171.

[116] Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab 1:60-68; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:237; Ibn Kathir, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:122-165; Muhammad Ibn Ishaq, al-Maghazi, pp. 115-116; Muhammad Ibn Habib, al-Munammaq fi Akhbar Quraysh, pp. 152-153; Muhammad Ibrahim ayati, the History of the Prophet of Islam, pp. 13-19.

[117] Ibn Kathir, op cit, pp. 156; Qisas al-`Arab 1:72.

[118] Jawad `Ali, al-Mufassal 6:449. Husayn tabataba’i, Committing Treasons In Preparing Historical Accounts 1:120; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:237.

[119] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, The Political History Of Islam 1:64.

2 Ibid, pp. 64; Shihab al-Din al-Abshahi, al-Mustatraf fi kulli fannin Mustazraf 2:88; Ibn Qutaybah, al-Ma`arif, pp. 621; al-Himyari, al-Hur al-`«n, pp. 136.

3 `Uthman ibn Huwayrith and Waraqah ibn Nawfal, belonging to the tribe of Banu-Asad, were following Hanifiyyah. See Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:225.

[121] Ahmad Amin, Fajr Al-Islam, pp. 27.

[122] Tarikh al-`Arab, pp. 78. Some historians ascribe the indoctrination and introduction of Christianity into Yemen to a Syrian saint called Faymiyin. See Ibn Husham, op cit, 1:32-35; Yaqut al-Hamawi, Mu`jam al-Buldan 5:266. However, this seems to be a myth since it is not in agreement with what is narrated by Hetti.

[123] Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:224.

[124] Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 26.

[125] Some exegetes of the Holy Qur'an say that the verses 4-9 of Surah al-Buruj were revealed in connection with the slaughter of the Christians. This might be a referent of those verses. See al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 20:251-257:

Cursed be the makers of the pit, of the fire kept burning with fuel, when they sat by it. And they were witnesses of what they did with the believers. And they did not take vengeance on them for aught except that they believed in Allah, the Mighty, the praised. Whose is the Kingdom of the heavens and the earth, and Allah is a Witness of all things (Qur’an 85: 8-9).

[126] Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 18,25, 26, 28.

[127] Qisas al-`Arab 1:73; Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 27.

[128] Qur’an 5:18, 72, 73; 4:171; 9:30; 5:82.

[129] Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 3:228, 233.

[130] In the words of Yaqut al-Hamawi, Tayma' was a small city between Syria and Wadi al-Qura. See Mu`jam al-Buldan 2:67. Wadi al-Qura is situated between Medina and Syria; it was one of the provinces of Medina. Thus, Tayma' was located between Medina and Syria. Al-Maqdisi, a scholar of the fourth century, writes: “Tayma' is an ancient city located in a wide-spread land, full of palm trees, with a lot of orchards and numerous rivers, with a spring of limpid water, which runs from an iron-grid into the pond and then runs into the orchards. There are some fresh water wells therein. However, most of them are ruined.” See Ahsan al-Taqasim.

[131] Fadak is a village of two or three day distance away from Medina. Mu`jam al-Buldan 4:238.

[132] Khaybar is a region 96 miles north of Medina; it included seven strongholds with numerous farmlands and palm-groves. (Mu`jam al-Buldan 2:404). The distance between Khaybar and Medina is recorded with different numbers. (Taqwim al-Buldan, pp. 123).

[133] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, op cit, pp. 64.

[134] al-Buladhari, Futuh al-Buldan, pp. 67.

[135] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 24.

[136] Ibn Qutaybah, al-Ma`arif, pp. 621; al-Hur al-`«n, pp. 136.

[137] Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:257.

[138] Ahmad Amin, op cot, pp. 23, 24, 37; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:37. Yaqut al-Hamawi, Mu`jam al-Buldan 5:266.

[139] Al-athar al-Baqiyah, pp. 294-295.

[140] Harran was a big city between the Tigris and Euphrates; today, it is a ruined village. At the Advent of Islam, it was a prosperous city in which famous scientists used to live. See Mu`jam al-Buldan 3:235-236; Taqwim al-Buldan, pp. 303, 307, 309; Muhammad Mu`in, Farhang Farsi 5:457.

[141] tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 10:279.

[142] Qur’an 2:62; 5:69; 22:17.

[143] They live at the shores of the Karun River, Ahwaz, Khorramshahr, Abadan, Shadigan, and Dasht Mishan.

[144] They live at the shores of the Tigris and Euphrates in Baghdad, Hillah, Nasiriyyah, `Imarah, Kut, Diyala, Kirkuk, Mosul, Ramadi, Sulaymaniyyah and Karbala'. For the derivation of the word sabi'i, whether it is Arabic or Hebrew, and for its meaning, see al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:223-228; Yahya Nuri, Islam And Human Ideas, pp. 431-432; Shahristani, al-Milal wa’l-Nihal 1:230, 2:5.

[145] Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:226.

[146] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 108; Dawud Ilhami, Iran and Islam, pp. 392. Having referred to the fact that Manicheans came to be called zanadiqah due to their following of zand, al-Bayruni writes: “The Manicheans and the Batiniyyah (Esotericists) are figuratively termed zanadiqah in Islam. This is because these two groups are similar to Mazdakids in ascribing certain traits and features to God.” See al-athar al-Baqiyah, pp. 312. About this topic, `Abd al-Husayn Zarrinkub writes, “The word zandiq is derived from the Pahlavi word zandic. At this era, this word was used for the Manicheans and for those who believed in atheism of some sort.

[147] Shahristani, op cit, pp. 244. An Orientalist says, “If we consider Manichaeism as Zoroastrianism mixed with Christianity, we are closer to the truth than considering Christianity mixed with Zoroastrianism.” See Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 104. Concerning Mani and his sect, Manichaeism, see `Abd al-Husayn Zarrinkub, Neither Eastern nor Western but Human, pp. 72-76.

[148] Ibn Qutaybah, al-Ma`arif, pp. 621; Al-Abshahi, al-Mustatrah 2:88; Ibn Rustah, al-A`laq al-Al-Nafisah, pp. 264; Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islam, pp. 108.

Muhammad ibn Habib al-Baghdadi states that the following individuals from Quraysh belonged to this group: Abu-Sufyan, `Aqabah ibn Abi-Mu`it, Ubay ibn Abi-Khalaf, Abu-`Azzah, al-Nazr ibn Harith, Nubayh and Munabbih, sons of al-Hajjaj ibn Amir al-Sahmi, al-`as ibn Wa’il, and al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah al-Makhzumi. See al-Muhabbar, pp. 161.

However, the speeches and sessions held by these individuals carry no single indication of this point. Rather, documents prove that they were idol-worshippers. In his discussions on heresy, `Abd al-Husayn Zarrinkub remarks that the word zandaqah included Materialists as well. This latter group refrained from attributing the events of this world to a Creator. The zanadiqah of Quraysh, among whom were Abu-Sufyan, Ibn Abi-Mu`it, al-Nazr ibn Harith, and al-Walid ibn Mughirah, were Materialists. It is understood from the news and poems related to the chiefs of Quraysh that their heresy stood for rejection of the Creator and disbelief in Resurrection”

[149] al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:240.

[150] tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 19:49.

[151] Ibid, pp. 215, 220, 230, 237, 239 and 240; Islam And Man's Ideologies, pp. 295-247.

[152] tabataba’i op cit 17:393.

[153] Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:385.

[154] Husham Ibn Muhammad Kalbi, Kitab al-Asnam, pp. 42.

[155] tabataba’i, op cit, 2:42.

[156] tabarsi, Majma` al-Bayan 8:46.

[157] al-alusi, op cit, 2:232.

[158] Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:55, 116; al-Azraqi, The History of Mecca 1:55; Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:18; Ibn Rustah, al-A`laq al-Nafisah, pp. 51.

[159] Azraqi, op cit. pp. 57; Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab 2:20.

[160] Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:19, 193; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 57.

[161] An exegesis of the Holy Qur'an states that the holy verse, (…and the faith of your father Abraham,) refers to this meaning. See tabarsi, Majma` al-Bayan 7:97.

[162] Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:224.

[163] al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar 15:170; Husham Kalbi, al-Asnam, pp. 6.

[164] Al-Hurr al-`amili, Wasa'il al-Shi`ah: 1465; tabarsi, al-Ihtijaj, pp. 189.

[165] Shahristani, al-Milal wa’l-Nihal 2:257.

[166] tabataba’i, al-Mizan 9:272.

[167] Shahristani, op cit, pp. 255; Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 2:12

[168] al-Azraqi, op cit, 1:88, 100, 101; Mahmud al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:200; al-Sirah al-Halabiyyah 1:16.

[169] Al-`amaliqah were the children of Prophet Noah. Their grandfather was named `imlaq or `imliq. See Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 2:188; al-Sirah al-Halabiyyah 1:17.

[170] al-alusi, op cit, 2:201; al-Shahristani, op cit, pp. 243; al-Halabi, op cit, pp. 17; Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 2:224; al-Abshahi, al-Mustatraf 2:29; Kalbi, al-Asnam, pp. 6; Muhammad Ibn Habib, al-Munammaq, pp. 328.

In some records, it is said that he brought Hubal from Iraq. See al-Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah 1:79; Ibn Kathir, al-Bidayah wa’l-Nihayah 2:188.

A report says that the stone of the idol is one of the stones of Ma'zamayn. For this reason, when the Prophet crossed that place, he showed hatred. See Wasa'il al-Shi`ah by al-Hurr al-`amili 10:36.

[171] al-Azraqi, op cit, 1:88; Shahristani, op cit, 2:242, 347.

[172] Ibn Husham, op cit, pp. 79; al-Halabi, op cit, pp. 17; Ibn `Abd al-Barr, al-Isti`ab 1:120; Ibn al-Athir, Usd al-Ghabah 4:390; al-Tustari, al-Awa’il, pp. 217; Ibn Kathir, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:65; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 116.

[173] al-alusi, op cit, 2:200.

[174] tabataba’i, op cit, 1:272.

[175] Kalbi, op cit, pp. 32.

[176] Shaykh al-tusi, al-Amali, pp. 336; al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:211; al-Azraqi, op cit, 1:21; al-Sirah al-Halabiyyah 3:30; al-Mizan 26: 271, based on a narration by Imam al-Riza.

[177] Qur’an 31:25; 39:38; 43:9; 43:87; 10:3.

[178] Al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur 4:23: tabarsi, Majma` al-Bayan 8:460.

[179] Ibn Kathir, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:7. Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:85.

[180] Ibn Husham, op cit, pp. 80; Ibn Kathir, op cit, pp. 63; al-Shahristani, al-Milal wa’l-Nihal 2:247. Ibn Kathir, al-Bidayah wa’l-Nihayah 2:88.

[181] Kalbi, al-Asnam, pp. 13; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:8; al-alusi, Bulugh al-Irab 2:202.

[182] Kalbi, op cit, pp. 14.

[183] al-Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah 1:178, 182; al-alusi, op cit, 1:244; sahih Muslim 18:162.

[184] tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 14:414.

[185] Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah 1:183; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:45.

[186] The Civilization Of Islam And Arab, pp. 138-130.

[187] Muhammad al-Siba`i, al-Abtal, pp. 9.

[188] Will Durant, the Story of Civilization 4:197.

[189] Ibn Wazih, Tarikh al-Ya`qubi 1:215.

[190] Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Baghdadi, al-Munammaq, pp. 42.

[191] Ibn Wazih, Ibid, 1:214.

[192] Op cit, pp. 213.

[193] Ibn Sa`d, al-tabaqat al-Kubra 1:78.

[194] Ibn Wazih, Ibid 1:215.

[195] tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wa’l-Muluk 2:180; Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh 2:16.

[196] tabari, op cit, pp. 180; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 1:143.

[197] Ahmad Amin, Fajr Al-Islam, pp. 13-14; Shawqi ®ayf, Tarikh al-Adab al-`Arabi 1:49.

[198] tabari, op cit, 2:180; Ibn al-Athir, op cit, pp. 16.

[199] Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 12; `Abd al-Mun`im Majid, al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li’l-Dawlah al-`Arabiyyah, pp. 79.

[200] Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, The Political History Of Islam, pp. 56.

[201] `Abbas Ziryab, Sirat Rasulillah, pp. 66-67.

[202] Jawad `Ali, al-Mufassal 1:114.

Probably, reference is made to Sa`id ibn al-`as (Abu-Uhayhah) who had the largest share of the caravan of Quraysh that had to encounter the Muslim troops at Well Badr during their return from Damascus. However, al-Waqidi (in al-Maghazi 1:27) does not say it explicitly.

[203] Phillip Hitti, op cit, pp. 130.

[204] tabari, op cit 2:221; al-Buladhari, Futuh al-Buldan, pp. 68.

[205] al-Buladhari, op cit, pp. 68.

[206] Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, pp. 25.

[207] Ibn Wazih, op cit, 1:10.

[208] Shawqi ®ayf, op cit, pp. 51, al-Jahiz, al-Mahasin wa’l-Azdad, pp. 62.

[209] An exegete of the Holy Qur'an states that the two great personalities mentioned in the holy verse (43:31) are al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah in Mecca and `Urwah ibn Mas`ud al-Thaqafi in ta’if. Because of their great wealth, the had been expected to be the promised prophet.

[210] tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an 2:43; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir 4:442.

[211] Ibn Kathir, al-Bidayah wa’l-Nihayah 2:229; al-alusi, op cit, 1:89; Muhammad Ahmad Jad al-Mawla Beck et al, Ayyam al-`Arab fi’l-Jahiliyyah, pp. 248.

[212] al-alusi, op cit, pp. 87; Ibn Kathir, op cit, pp. 220.

[213] Bakri, Mu`jam mastu`jim 2:444.

[214] Jad al-Mawla, op cit, pp. 334.

[215] Op cit, pp. 324.

[216] Ibn Qutaybah, al-Ma`arif, pp. 576: Mas`udi, Muruj al-Dhahab 2:284; Jawad `Ali, op cit, pp. 96.

[217] al-alusi, op cit, pp. 87.

[218] Ibn Husham, op cit, 4:83; al-Waqidi, al-Maghazi 3:890; Ibn Sa`d, al-tabaqat al-Kubra 2:150; Halabi, al-Sirah al-Halabiyyah 3:63.

The Holy Prophet borrowed three thousand spears from his cousin, Nawfal ibn al-Harith ibn `Abd al-Muttalib. (Halabi, op cit)

[219] al-Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah 1:107; Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:130.

[220] Ibn `Abd-Rabbih, al-`Iqd al-Farid 3:314; Ahmad Amin, op cit, pp. 237; al-alusi, op cit, 1:145-150.

These institutes and organizations were not in the form of modern times as some historians, such as Georgie Zaydan and Lamens, had assumed; rather, they were very primitive and tribal.

[221] Phillip Hatti, op cit, pp. 17.

[222] Ibn Husham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah 1:59; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 176.

[223] Ibn `Abd-Rabbih, op cit, 3:313; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 176.

[224] al-Azraqi, op cit, 1:70.

[225] Op cit, pp. 174; al-alusi, op cit, 1:242.

[226] Ibn Sa`d, op cit, 1:70.

[227] Jawad `Ali, op cit, 4:21.

[228] Ibn Sa`d, op cit, pp. 69; Ibn Husham, op cit, pp. 125, 130; Ibn Athir, al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh 2:20; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 189.

[229] Ibn Sa`d, op cit, pp. 72; al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 178, 182. It was because of Quraysh’s power and control over these ceremonies, people used to circumambulate the Kaaba naked. In this respect, there is a story about a naked woman who performed the Hajj ceremony composing a shameful verse of poetry. See al-Azraqi, op cit, 1:178, 182; Ibn Husham, op cit, 4:190; al-alusi, op cit, 1:244; sahih Muslim 18:162.

[230] Al-Azraqi, op cit, pp. 177.

[231] Ibn Husham 4:190.

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