The Arabian Peninsula, located in the south-west of Asia, is the world's
largest Peninsula. Extended from the north-west towards southeast, it
resembles an irregular trapezoid[1]
with an area of three million and two hundred thousand square kilometers[2].
The present Saudi Arabia covers nearly four-fifths of this Peninsula;[3]
the rest, in accordance with the present political demarcation, is occupied
by six political states of Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Bahrain, and Kuwait.
It borders the Aden Gulf, Bab al-Mandab Strait, the Indian Ocean and the Sea
of Oman. It borders the Red Sea on the west, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian
Gulf and Iraq on the east; and on the north borders a widespread desert
extending to the valley of the Euphrates on one side, and Syria on the
other. Since there are no natural borders, such as rivers or mountains, in
this Peninsula, geographers have not been able so far to mark its northern
border.
[4]
The Arabian Peninsula is surrounded by the Persian Gulf, the Sea of Oman,
the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean except for its southern sections.
Nevertheless, it suffers from severe lack of water and is considered one of
the driest and hottest areas of the world. It even lacks a large river or a
navigable waterway. Instead, it has lands which are sometimes flooded with
rainfalls.
The existence of a mountain range, which starts from the Sinai Peninsula and
extends all over the western border of Arabia, acting as a lofty wall, and
which winds around the southwest corner of the peninsula to go around the
southern and eastern sectors of Arabia as far as the Persian Gulf is the
main reason for the extreme dryness of this Peninsula. Thus, Arabia is
surrounded, on three sides, with this lofty mountain-wall and this hinders
humidity of the seas from entering this land.
[5]
On the other hand, the extent of the neighboring water is so insufficient
that it could not modify the warmth and dryness of these vast African-Asian
lands which are low in receiving humidity. This is worsened by the blowing
of the poisoning Monsoon winds inside Arabia which stops the rain-carrying
winds from the Indian Ocean coming from the south from entering the Arabian
Peninsula[6].
Divisions of the Arabian Peninsula
Both Arab and non-Arab geographers have divided the Arabian Peninsula on the
basis of the natural elements (such as weather) and on the basis of races
and tribes.
[7]
Some contemporary scientists have divided it into three main sections in the
following manner:
The central section, which is called the Arab Desert;
The northern section, which is called Hijaz;
The southern section, which is called Yemen.
[8]
Division on the Basis of Natural Conditions (The
south and the North)
Besides these divisions, there has been, in recent years, another division
proposed for Arabia which fits in well with the purposes of this book. This
division is based on the life sustaining conditions which have had a
tremendous effect on the lives of people, living things and plants of this
region. These conditions have influenced the individual and social traits of
these people and have brought forth some changes which were in existence up
to the advent of Islam. There exist two drastic conditions in the Arabian
Peninsula: either there is water, or there is no water. This parameter has
had tremendous effects on life patterns of people: it sets apart the
southern section, i.e. Yemen, from the central and northern sections.
Life Conditions in the Southern Section (Yemen)
Looking at the map of this land, we find a triangle-shaped territory in the
southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arab Sea forms the eastern
side of this triangle, while the Red Sea forms the western border. A line
drawn from Dhahran (in the west) to Khazra’ Mount (in the east) forms the
third side of this triangle. Inside this huge triangle lies a territory,
called Yemen since old times. Due to the abundance of water and the regular
rainfall, this region has enjoyed lucrative agriculture and dense
population; in this regard, it contrasts with both the north and central
part of the Peninsula.
On the other hand, a dense population needs a permanent residence. For this
very reason, villages and cities came to existence. The concentration of
people in cities and villages creates interaction among people which is
unavoidable. These modes of interaction bring forth laws and regulations
(even the primitive ones), and, as we know, the establishment of laws causes
the creation of government. For this reason, centuries prior to the birth of
Jesus Christ (s), governments had in this region and established some
civilizations.
[9]
The governments which have been established in this region are:
(1) The Ma`in State: This government was in existence between 1400
and 850 BC and fell with the creation of the Saba' State.
(2) The Hazramawt State: This state existed between 1020 and 65 BC
and fell to the Saba' State.
(3) The Saba' State: This state was in existence between 850
and 115 BC and ended due to the establishment of the Himyari Saba' and Ridan
government.
(4) The Qataban State: This state existed between 865 and 540 BC and
came to an end with the establishment of the Saba' State.
(5) The States of Saba', Ridan, Hazramawt and the vicinity of Yemen, whose
vocal dynasties were called Tubba` and lived between 115 BC and 523 AD,
their capital was ²afar.
[10]
A Prosperous Civilization in the South of Arabia
Historians have admired the Yemeni bright civilization. An example is
Herodotus, the great Greek historian of the fifth century BC, who mentions
the civilization of this land which embodied lofty castles in Saba' with
doors engraved with precious stones; these castles contained golden-ware and
silver-ware and beds made of precious metals.
[11]
Some historians refer to a glorious, twenty-floor castle, called Qur'an in
Sana’a, which consisted of one hundred rooms with externally high walls and
mirror-decorated ceilings.
[12]
Strabonn, a famous Roman tourist, paid a visit to this city. Referring to
the civilization in this land, he writes:
The city of Ma'rib was a strange city because the ceilings of its castles
were made of ivory with gilded scripts and jewels. The elegant Kitchenware
made any human being wonder.
[13]
Likewise, the Islamic historians and geographers, Mas`udi (died 346 AH), and
Ibn Rustah (one of the scholars of the third century AH) talk of the
luxurious life of people in this region and of its prosperous life patterns
prior to the advent of Islam.
[14]
Archeological investigations in the 19th and 20th
centuries, as well as the research of historians, have all located valid
documents concerning the glorious civilization in this ancient land. The
remaining ruins in Aden, Sana’a, Ma'rib and Hazramawt all attest to an Arab
civilization in the south, i.e. in Yemen, and the neighboring lands. This
civilization had been a rival for the Phoenician and Babylonian
civilizations. One of the features of the ancient civilization in Yemen was
a huge dam, called Ma'rib.
[15]
Being constructed in accordance with rigorous geometrical calculations, this
dam attests to a profound knowledge on the part of the engineers and
constructors of this dam. This dam could make agriculture prosper in that
area.
[16]
Besides agriculture, the Yemenis were engaged in trade. The Sabaeans were
trade agents between the east and the west because in those days the country
of Yemen rested among several civilized countries. The Indian traders used
to take their merchandise to Yemen and Hazramawt through the Indian Ocean
and then the Yemeni traders used to take them to Ethiopia, Egypt, Phoenicia,
Palestine, The cities of Madyan, Adwam, Al-`Amaliqah and the western lands
and the Meccan Arabs used to take the same merchandise and carry them over
land to the then advanced cities of the world.
[17]
The Yemenis used to carry out trade with the Far East for a long time.
[18]
The navigation problems and hardships on the Red Sea had led the Sabaeans
follow land routes. For this reason, they used to travel between Yemen and
Damascus along the western shore of the Arabian Peninsula. This road,
crossing Mecca and Petra, used to divide towards Egypt, Damascus and Iraq.
[19]
The Destruction of Ma'rib Dam
Due to the spread of corruption among the southerners and because of the
internal turmoil, the star of Yemenite civilization gradually declined and
the Yemenis and their kings could not repair the Ma'rib Dam which was in
terrible need of repair, and then through the destruction of this dam, a
devastating flood inundated all the villages and the farms and drought
prevailed in the surrounding regions, destroying agriculture. This led
people to emigrate from their land[20].
The Holy Qur'an refers to the nation of Saba' in two occasions: once, on the
occasion of mentioning the Queen of Saba' (Sheba) and Solomon's letter to
her:
And he tarried not long, and then said: I comprehend that which you do not
comprehend and I have brought to you sure information from Sheba. Surely, I
found a woman ruling over them, and she has been given abundance and she has
a mighty throne. (27:22-23)”
On another occasion the Qur'an refers to Sheba in connection with the
destruction of the Ma'rib Dam and the flow of a devastating flood due to the
corruption of that tribe:
Certainly, there was a sign for Saba' in their abode; two gardens on the
right and the left; eat of the sustenance of your Lord and give thanks to
Him: A good land and a Forgiving lord! But they turned aside, so We sent
upon them a torrent of which the rush could not be withstood and in place of
their two gardens We gave to them, two gardens yielding bitter fruit and
growing tamarisk and a few lute-trees. This We requited them with because
they disbelieved; and We do not punish any but the ungrateful. And We made
between them and the town which We had blessed other towns to be easily
seen, and We apportioned the journey therein: Travel through them nights and
days, secure. And they said: O our lord! Make spaces to be longer between
our journeys; and they were unjust to themselves; so We made them stories
and scattered them with an utter scattering; most surely there are signs in
this for every patient, grateful one. (34:15-19)
The destruction of this dam is reported by Hamzah Isfahani to have taken
place in 400 before Islam.
[21]
According to Abu-Rayhan al-Bayruni, it took place 500 years prior to the
advent of Islam.
[22]
And Yaqut al-Hamawi mentions the destruction of this dam to be the result of
Abyssinian domination. Some historians consider it to have occurred between
the years 542 and 570 AH because the Abyssinian's domination was highest
during the middle of the sixth century.
[23]
But the destruction of the dam must have been gradual: it fell apart after
several repairs. In the Holy Qur'an, reference is made to the nation of
Tubba` and their final days on two occasions:
Are they better or the people of Tubba`[24]
and those before them? We destroyed them, for surely they were guilty.
(44:37)
Others before them rejected prophets: the people of Noah and the dwellers of
al-Rass and Thamud, and `ad and Pharaoh and Lut's brethren and the dwellers
of the grove and the people of Tubba`; all rejected the apostles; so, My
threat came to pass. (50:12-14)
The Effects of the Fall of the Southern Civilization on Arabia
The fall of states in the southern sections, the decline of the civilization
in this part of the Arabian Peninsula, and the destruction of the Ma'rib
dam—all had their effects on the social changes in this region, because the
southern section of the Arabian Peninsula lost its glamour and the fields
died away due to drought and a group of the dwellers on the vicinity of this
dam had to emigrate from their land.
Due to these dispersions, the Tanukh branch of the Yemenite tribe, called
Azd, emigrated to Hirah (Iraq) and established the government of Lakhmian
there. The branch called al-Jafnah went to Damascus and established a
government at a place to the east of Jordan. They called themselves the
Ghassanians.
[25]
The tribe Aws and Khazraj emigrated to Yathrib (Medina), and Khuza`ah went
to Mecca and its suburbs; the tribes Bujaylah and Khath`am and some other
groups went to the region of Sarawat and dwelt there,[26]
each initiating a series of events.
The Conditions of the Northern Section of the
Arabian Peninsula (Hijaz)
Hijaz is a dry land, receiving only sporadic rains and except for the
mountainous terrain and the narrow shore-areas, it has extremely hot
weather. These climatic conditions have had tremendous effects over the
life-pattern of its dwellers. This is because the Arab residents of this
region, contrary to the southerners, due to small numbers of pastures could
not keep cattle except for tiny animals and camels which are tolerant
beings. They prepared their food and clothing mainly from camels. Because
this cattle raising and husbandry was based on wandering life-patterns, the
establishment of a stable political institution seemed to be impossible. For
this reason, contrary to the southerners who were city-dwellers and farmers,
the dwellers of the north of the Peninsula lacked civilization and were
mainly nomadic wanderers, and the cities there (except for Mecca which, for
reasons we will present later, was a little advanced at the advent of Islam)
did not carry any significance.
Due to these natural hardships and communication problems, the people of
Hijaz did not communicate with the civilized world at those days. These
natural and geographical hardships caused this land to remain immune against
the aggressions of conquerors. This fact attested the lack of interest on
the part of Ramses II in the 14th century BC, Alexander of
Macedonia in the 4th century BC, and Gallous at the time of
August, the Roman Emperor, in the first century AD, to conquer this land nor
did the Iranian kings show any interest to conquer this region. For this
very reason, the people of Hijaz continued their nomadic life without any
external interference.
[27]
Concerning this, a historian writes:
When Demetrius, the Greek army-general (after Alexander) arrived at Petra to
conquer it, the Arab desert-dwellers said to him, “O great Prince, why have
you come to fight us? We are living on a desert with no comfort of life
whatsoever. We have chosen life here to remain our own masters, not to
receive orders from anybody. Now accept our gifts and return home from where
you have come. If you do so, we shall remain your most devoted friends.
However, if you decide to fight us and refuse to accept our peace proposal,
you have to destroy your life-comforts. You cannot change our life-modes to
which we have grown accustomed since our childhood. You would not benefit,
either, to take some of us as prisoners-of-war. This is because those
captured ones shall never become your slaves.”
Having considered this, Demetrius accepted their gifts and returned home,
refusing to partake in a war which did not offer anything except for
hardships and nuisances.
[28]
A scientist has observed:
“The Arab Island is a complete example of dependence of man over land.
Inside countries such as India, Greece, Italy, England, and the United
States, we have always seen some adventurous conquerors who have ventured to
defeat the native dwellers and to make them obedient. There has never
occurred in the history of Arabia any conqueror who has decided to occupy
this land.
[29]
Nomads
Since the major sections of the northern territory of the Arabian Peninsula
(Hijaz) consists of deserts, most Arabs were desert-dwellers and nomads
prior to the advent of Islam. The nomads, being deprived of assets of life
due to the severe conditions under which they lived, continued to live
mainly on animal husbandry on a very limited scale. They used to live under
tents woven out of goat's hair and camel's wool; they would inhabit anywhere
they could locate some water or pastures; and they would move to other
regions as soon as they were out of provisions. The nomadic Arabs could not
raise cattle, except for small herds and a few camels at most, due to the
shortage of pastures and plants. There is a maxim to the effect that “in a
desert, the nomadic power, camels and dates rule.” If we added the power of
sands to these three powers, we would get four main factors which play a
significant role in desert life. Shortage of water, extreme heat, difficult
roads, and scarcity of foods and supplies, which are man's great enemies
under normal conditions, would turn into man's closest friends at times of
war. Thus, when we observe that an Arab and his desert have never bowed to
the enemy's power, we would not be amazed that the continuous dryness of the
desert had had its permanent effect on the Arab's body and mental abilities.
Nomadic Arabs considered it beyond their dignity to be involved in either
agriculture or other crafts and industries.
[30]
They would belittle the civilized states and their regulations; they used to
prefer desert life to city life.
[31]
The desert Arab was the son of nature and the infinite and borderless
desert. No building could ever interfere with the clean air of his
environment; the sun's everlasting rays fell over him without the hindrance
of the clouds. He had erected no dam against rain or torrents. Everything
was kept in the form it was created by God. Thus, the desert’s son was as
free as his environment. Neither farming nor engagement in any industry
could deter him from his freedom; nor could the city crowds bother him in
any way. He cared for freedom because he had lived in it. No rules or
regulations could mar his freedom. He used to fight with anybody who tried
to deprive him of his freedom. He was bound by two things only: the
principles of idolatry and its ceremonies on the one hand and his tribal
customs on the other. However, his commitment towards his tribal customs had
deep roots.
[32]
La Mense, the Belgian Orientalist, writes:
The Arab was an example of democracy and freedom, but an extreme form which
had no limits. The Arab rebellion against any power which intended to limit
his freedom (even when this limit was in his favor) reveals the roots of the
crimes which fill most of Arab history.
[33]
The Tribal Order
Prior to the advent of Islam, the Arabs of Hijaz obeyed neither a government
nor a political institution. For this reason, their social life differed
greatly from that of the Iranians and Romans. This is because in these two
countries, i.e. Iran and Rome which bordered Arabia, there were unified
central governments which ruled all over the country. However, there was no
central power in Hijaz or in any other city (in the north or center of the
Arabian Peninsula as a whole).
The tribe was the social unit of the Arabs and the tribal system prevailed
everywhere. In such a system, the identity of individuals was determined
only through their affiliation with a tribe. The tribal elements could be
observed among not only the desert dwellers but also the city-dwellers. In
that region, every tribe looked like an independent country and the
interrelations among them resembled those among nations in the new world.
Racial Affiliation
In those days, nationality was not based on factors such as unity of
religion, language or history. A tribe was defined as a collection of some
affiliated families and the bonds which brought relatedness among them were
the familial bonds, and the unity of common ancestors. This is because the
members of a tribe considered themselves as of the same blood.
[34]
The combination of some families would create a tent and a combination of
several tents would bring forth a tribe. Even the composition of big
association, such as that of the Jews, was based on consanguinity and common
ancestors. These groups would set up their tents in such a way as to form
tribes of several thousand people each. Then, they would migrate from one
place to another, following their cattle.
[35]
The Tribal Chief
The head or representative of the tribe was called Shaykh.
[36]
This Shaykh was usually the most advanced in age. He had this
position because of his personality, experience, bravery, defense of the
tribe’s interests and sometimes because of the abundance of his wealth.
[37]
In the election of the Shaykh, some traits, such as generosity, bravery,
patience, wisdom, humility and eloquence, were taken into consideration.
[38]
The Shaykh did not use force or coercion in judicial, military and other
general affairs. He used to consult with the tribal consultative committees.
This latter managerial body elected the Shaykh who continued to keep his job
as long as his electorates were happy with him.
[39]
However, in accordance with the tribal tradition, everybody had to obey the
head of the tribe. When a Shaykh died, either his eldest son or another
elderly man who possessed the same traits would be the tribal leader.
Islam fought against the tribal system and did away with it. It did not
consider race or clan as significant as it built the newly established
Islamic society on the basis of “unity of faith,” which is the strongest
social bond. In this way, Islam substituted common faith for consanguinity.
Islam called all the believers as brethren (the Holy Qur'an, 49:10). In this
way, the foundation of the Arab social structure was changed.
Tribal Zeal and Devotion
Extreme zeal was considered as the very soul of the tribe and showed that an
individual was devoted to the tribal interests. As a general rule, tribal
devotion among the desert-dwellers resembled extreme nationalism in the
modern world.
[40]
Whatever a civilized man does for his country, religion or race, a nomadic
Arab did for his tribe. He would do anything possible for his tribe; he
would even sacrifice his own life for it.
[41]
An Arab used to be over-protective of his family members, such as brothers,
nephews and other relatives. He used to protect his relative be he good or
tyrant. In the Arab's ideology, if anybody refrained from helping his
brother or nephew, his honor would be marred and damaged. Regarding this,
they would say:
Help out your brother whether he is an oppressor or oppressed.
An Arab has written the following poem in this regard:
When a man is asked by his brothers to help them, he would not delay helping
them out.
[42]
In this way, if a tribal member was insulted, the whole tribe would feel
this insult. Therefore, all tribal members had to participate in
obliterating this spot of dishonor.
[43]
Islam has condemned this kind of nonsensical prejudice, dogmatism and
harmful zeal and has called it irrational:
When those who disbelieved harbored in their hearts feelings of disdain;
distain of the days of ignorance. (48:26)
The Holy Prophet has stated:
“Anybody who invites others to engage in a dogmatic piece of affair or bears
prejudice stays out of Islam.”[44]
“Anybody who engages in prejudice or is shown irrational sympathy stays out
of religion.”[45]
The Holy Prophet once said, “Help out your brother, whether he is an
aggressor or is an oppressed.” People remarked, “It is evident that an
oppressed one should be helped out? How should we help out an oppressor?”
The Holy Prophet replied, “Stop his aggression.”[46]
Tribal Revenge
Since there was neither central government, nor any judicial system in those
days in Arabia to settle people's conflicts and to establish justice anybody
who was the victim of an injustice had the right to engage in the act of
taking-revenge. If the offender belonged to another tribe, the oppressed had
the right to take revenge on any member of the other tribe and this was a
common practice with the Arabs of those days.
[47]
This was because one member's sin was considered collective, belonging to
the whole tribe, and because of the whole clan and consanguinity. The act of
taking revenge was carried out first by close relatives, and later on by the
whole members of the tribe if it was felt urgent.
If anybody was killed, the act of taking revenge would fall upon the
shoulders of the closest relative[48]
and if the murdered one belonged to another tribe, the custom of
revenge-taking would be carried out and any one of the murderer’s tribal
member was at the risk of losing his life. This was because the dominating
dictum of the desert would say: “Blood is washed off only with blood.” No
blood-money was accepted.
Once, a nomadic Arab was asked, “Are you ready to let go of anybody who has
wronged you?” He replied, “I will take revenge and then go to hell.”[49]
Tribal Rivalries and Boastings
Another feature of the Arab's life in those dark days was rivalry and
boasting. An Arab would bask in the dominant values of those days which were
generally absurd. Besides bravery in the war-fields, other traits, such as
generosity, loyalty, wealth, number of children and dependency towards
tribal values, were considered significant. The Holy Qur'an re-states their
statements, condemning them at the same time:
And they say: we have more wealth and children, and we shall not be
punished. Say: surely my Lord amplifies the means of Subsistence for whom He
pleases and straitens (for whom He pleases), but most men do not know. And
not your wealth nor your children are the things which bring you near Us in
station, but whoever believes and does good, these it is for whom is a
double reward for what they do, and they shall be secure in the highest
places. (34:35-37)
Once, Khosrow, the Iranian king, asked al-Nu`man Ibn al-Mundhir, the king of
Hirah, “Is there a tribe among the Arab tribes, which is superior to others
in dignity and honor? He answered, “Yes, there is.” When he was asked for
the reason, al-Nu`man replied, “Anybody who has three of his ancestors as
the tribal chiefs consecutively and the fourth chief from his own tribe will
have the next chief from his own tribe as well.”[50]
The Arabs at the time of ignorance used to boast about the numbers of their
tribe members; in this way, they disheartened rival tribes.
One day, there was an argument between two tribes; each enumerated his
tribal points of honor and claimed that the number of the dignified persons
and the sheer number of the members was superior to that of the rival tribe.
They started calling heads of all tribal members. The counting of the living
members did not help. So, they went to the cemetery to count the dead.
[51]
The Holy Qur'an has condemned such ignorant and irrational boastings:
Abundance diverts you, until you come to the graves, Nay! You shall soon
know. (102:1-3)
The Significance of Parentage
Two of the most significant criteria among the Arabs during the period of
ignorance were parentage and kinship relations. These were the very basis of
many other criteria.
[52]
Boasting on one's race was prevalent among the Arab tribes. A typical
example was the rivalry between the `Adnanite Arabs (in the north) and the
Qahtanite Arab (in the south).
[53]
For this very reason, an Arab gave great significance to his parentage.
al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir said to Khosrow:
The members of other nations do not care about their parentage; if they are
asked about their ancestors, they will lack the necessary knowledge. This
was completely different in the case of Arabs, who recognized their
ancestors fully. The Arabs would not accept foreigners as members of their
clans. They would not enter any interaction with strangers. An Arab is not
called by any other name than his father's.
[54]
Thus, it is not surprising to see the science of genealogy, which was one of
the limited sciences in those days, receiving a prominent significance.
Genealogists received lots of respect, as well. alusi, a prominent
researcher on Arab issues, writes:
“Arabs in the Age of Ignorance put a lot of emphasis on their parentage
because this kind of recognition was one of the means to cooperate with
others. They really needed this sort of recognition, because they lived in
separate locations and the fire of war was always blazing. Plunder was a
common practice. Since they were reluctant to accept anybody's help in order
to defeat their enemies, they had to stick to their parentage, because the
love and caring for ones’ relatives would result in mutual cooperation and
would prevent disunity.
[55]
Islam, however, rejected any concept of racial superiority. Although the
verses of the Holy Qur'an were revealed among the Arabs and the tribe of
Quraysh, they were never addressed to any Qurayshite or any Arab. Rather,
these sacred verses are addressed to people in general. When Muslims are
reminded of their duties, they are referred to as believers.
According to the Holy Qur'an, racial differences are natural things.
However, it rejects boasting about one's race, and recognizes the criterion
of piety as the base for values:
O you men! Surely We have created you of a male and a female, and made you
tribes and families that you may know each other, surely the most honorable
of you with Allah is the one among you most careful of his duty, surely
Allah is Knowing, Aware. (49:13)[56]
The Holy Prophet emphatically rejected boasting about one's race or
parentage. Examples are the following:
(1) On the Conquest of Mecca when the Quraysh's main stronghold fell, people
of Quraysh considered themselves superior; hence, the Holy Prophet remarked:
O people: God, through Islam, has strongly rejected taking pride in one's
parentage which existed at the age of Ignorance. Remember, you are not at
the Age of Ignorance. Remember, you are the offspring of Adam, and Adam was
created of dust. The best of God's servants are the most pious. Arabism
could not possibly be the father of anybody. But Arabic is an eloquent
language. One who is a loser in life could not be saved through racial or
ancestral privileges.
[57]
(2) During his last pilgrimage (hijjat al-wada`; Farewell
Pilgrimage) and through a detailed discourse, the Holy Prophet warned the
attendants, saying:
“No Arab has any superiority over any non-Arab except for piety.”[58]
While confirming Salman in his discussion with Quraysh and his condemnation
of the Arab’s wrong ideology in believing in racism, the Holy Prophet (s),
said:
“O People of Quraysh; one's honor rests on one’s religion; one's manhood and
honor rest on one’s behavior; one's true origin is one’s wisdom and
understanding.”[59]
Tribal Wars
If a murder occurred among the Arabs, the murderer’s closest relative would
be responsible; and since the murderer's family used to support him, a
bloody war would be inevitable. These wars would start over minor things and
usually lasted for years. An example was the Basus War between the two
tribes of Banu-Bakr and Banu-Taghlib both of whom belonged to Rabi`ah. This
war lasted for forty years. The source of the conflict was the arrival of a
camel of the former tribe into the reserved pastureland of the other tribe
who slaughtered it. The camel owner, a lady named Basus, belonged to the
former tribe.
[60]
Another war of the same nature broke out between Qays ibn Zuhayr, the chief
of Banu-Fazarah over a horse race. Dahis and al-Ghabra’ were the names of
two horses which took part in this competition. The former belonged to Qays
and the latter to Hudhayfah. Both Qays and Hudhayfah claimed that their
horses won. This minor event culminated in a disaster in which many lives
were lost.
[61]
These kinds of calamities have been termed Ayyam al-`Arab on which
numerous books have been written.
Of course, on some occasions, camels would be paid to the family of the
diseased one as blood money. In every tribe, it was up to the elderly people
to solve such conflicts. Solutions were offered, but not imposed and the
tribes would accept such peaceful solutions due to their involvement in the
tiring wars. If the murderer's tribe submitted the murderer to the other
tribe who had lost a member, wars could be prevented. However, such
submission was not honorable. Therefore, they preferred to punish the
wrongdoer. In the conceptualization of the desert dweller, keeping one’s
face was the very essence of ethics.
These desert rules and regulations were carried out in the cities of Hijaz,
i.e. ta’if, Mecca and Medina. This is because these citizens resembled the
desert dwellers in many ways: they were independent and free, as they obeyed
nobody whatsoever. However, these prestige-keeping behaviors which
manifested themselves in extremity within the desert were somehow moderated
in Mecca due to the respect that they showed towards the Kaaba and because
of the trade, contracts which were held in that holy place.
[62]
The Holy Qur'an has condemned this sort of revenge-taking and stipulated
justice as the basis for the protection of people. It emphasized the fact
that Muslims should maintain justice even if this justice might endanger
themselves or their parents.
O You who believe! Be maintainers and
justify bearers of witness of Allah's sake, though it may be against your
own selves or your parents or near relatives; if he be rich or poor, Allah
in nearer to them both in compassion; therefore do not follow your low
desires, lest you deviate; and if you swerve or turn aside, then surely
Allah is aware of what you do. (4:135)
Manslaughter and Plunder
The desert-dwelling Arab did not show any love or sympathy towards anybody
outside his own tribe. This kind of affection did not go beyond one's own
family and tribe the members of which were close relatives. An Arab's field
of thinking and understanding was within the narrow range of the tribe. The
desert-dwelling Arab, like extremist nationalists of our time, cared for his
own interests and those of his close relatives. This behavior was manifested
by one Arab, who was still under the influence of his previous culture after
the advent of Islam and said at the time of praying, “O God, bless me and
bless Muhammad; but do not bless anybody else.”[63]
The deprivation imposed by the severe conditions of the desert on the
desert-dwelling Arabs forced them to engage in plundering. This was due to
the fact that their land lacked the common assets of other lands. They used
to compensate for this deprivation through plundering. They considered
engagement in plundering the caravans a kind of bravery and honor in the
same way that capture and besiegement of a city is considered honorable at
our own time.
[64]
Of course, one of the causes for plundering and wars was rivalry among
tribes to capture the pastures. At times, bloody conflicts occurred for the
attainment of chiefship. For instance, at the time of the death of an elder
brother who used to be the chief, the younger brothers desired for that
position, and the deceased chief's sons, too, wanted to get their father's
position. Under such conditions, fight and struggles for power were
inevitable. In such moments, poets also agitated people to be involved for
more bloodshed. They chanted tribal prides, criticized other rival tribes
and mobilized people to take revenge. Minor issues were the usual causes for
such bloody conflicts, it was then up to the two antagonistic tribes to
annihilate one another mercilessly.
[65]
Savagery and avoidance of civilized ways was among the reasons for their
plundering. In the opinion of Ibn Khaldun, this nation was savage.
Plundering and savagery were embedded in their very morale. For instance,
when they needed stones to build a fireplace, they used to destroy
buildings; they used to destroy buildings and castles in order to prepare
woods required for erecting tents. They got their sustenance by means of
swords; they would not be satisfied easily; they showed greed for plunder;
they would grab any piece of wealth they could put their hands on.
[66]
Plundering was one of their sources of income. When they attacked a tribe,
they would confiscate their camels and enslave their wives and children.
Still another tribe would carry out the same pernicious acts in a later
time. When they could not locate an enemy, they would destroy one another.
This is made clear through the poem of al-Qattami, a poet in the reign of
the Umayyad rulers, who composed:
“It is our job to attack our neighbors and our enemies, and in those moments
when we cannot locate anybody else except for our brother, we will attack
him.”[67]
The revenge-based wars between the two tribes of Aws and Khazraj in Yathrib
(Medina) were so severe and widespread that nobody dared to leave his home.
These wars had destroyed the lives of the Arabs. God mentions in the Holy
Qur'an their catastrophic condition and emphasizes the brotherhood among
people which was the result of Islam:
Remember the favor of Allah on you when you were enemies, then He united
your hearts so by His favor you became brethren; and you were on the brink
of a pit of fire, then he saved you from it; thus does Allah make clear to
you His communications that you may follow the right way. (3:103)
The Forbidden Months
A ceasefire (called sacred peace) was held among Arabs only during the
Sacred Months (i.e. Dhu’l-Qa`dah, Dhu’l-Hijjah, Muharram, and Rajab) out of
their respect for a tradition left from the time of Prophet Abraham and
Prophet Ishmael.
[68]
During these tranquil times, Arabs could have peace of mind and engage in
trades or pilgrimage.
[69]
If any war occurred during these sacred months, they would be called Harb
al-Fujjar or a sinful fight. (the Holy Qur'an 9:37)
Women in the Arab Society
Arabs' outlook towards women was one of the manifestations and outcomes of
ignorance during the period of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic ignorance).
Women were denied their human rights and independence. The very existence of
women and girls at home was a sign of inferiority and shame for a family.
[70]
They would deprive girls of inheritance and believed those who defend their
tribes (i.e. boys) who use their swords are entitled to inheritance.
[71]
In accordance with a narration, women were considered as merchandise. Upon
her husband's death, the wife, if she did not have a son, would be
transferred, along with the husband's other commodities, to the son of her
husband from other wives.
[72]
In accordance with some pieces of evidence, upon the death of one's husband,
a woman would become the wife of her eldest son who would draw a piece of
cloth on her step-mother's face and consider her item of inheritance and
would marry her without any dowry. If he was reluctant to marry his
stepmother, he would then ask another man to marry her and make use of her
dowry for himself. If he preferred, he could deprive her stepmother of any
future marriages so that after her death he could possess her wealth.
Thus, at the time of Arab Ignorance, marrying one's stepmother was not
illegal. For this reason, the Holy Qur'an has prohibited it.
[73]
According to some interpreters, when a man called Abu-Qays ibn al-Aslat died
and his eldest son wanted to marry his mother, the following verse was
revealed:
It is not lawful for you that you should take women as heritage against
their will. (4:22)[74]
In those dark days, polygamy was very prevalent.
[75]
The Tragedy of Women
As it is well-known, one of the Arabs' worst habits at the time of Ignorance
was the practice of burying daughters alive. They would bury their daughters
alive because they were thought to be unable to defend the tribal interests.
Such men also feared that their daughters could be enslaved by their
enemies, be married to them and give birth to children. This, they assumed,
would be a sign of shame for them.
[76]
Some others buried their daughters alive due to severe poverty and
wretchedness. (6:151)[77]
As a whole, daughters were received as nasty beings. They were held as a
sign of disgrace. The Holy Qur'an describes them in the following manner:
And when a daughter is announced to one of them, his face becomes black and
he is full of wrath. He hides himself from the people because of the evil of
that which is announced to him. Shall he keep it with disgrace or bury it
alive in the dust? Now surely evil is what they judge. (16:58-59)
Women's deprivation and conviction are reflected amply in the Arab
literature of those days. It was a custom for the Arab men to sympathize
with a man who became a father to a daughter. They would tell him, “May God
keep you from her disgrace. May God provide you with the expenses that she
would create for you. May Gay turn her bridegroom's house into grave.”
Regarding this, an Arab poet has written the following poem:
“For any father who has a daughter and wishes to keep her, there are three
kinds of bridegrooms: A house where she can shelter; a husband who can keep
her, and a grave to protect her; but the best the grave.”
A story is told that a man, called Abu-Hamzah, stayed with the neighbors
because his wife had given birth to a girl. His wife playfully said the
following piece of poetry for her child:
“What has happened to Abu-Hamzah who has left us, living with the neighbors.
He is angry because I have not given birth to a son. By God I swear, it is
not upon us to decide on the sex of the child. We will receive what we are
given.”
This mother's speech is in fact a revolt against the tyrant social
conditions prevailing over the Arab community in those days, and depicts the
tragedy of women then. The first tribe to establish such a nasty institution
was the tribe of Banu-Tamim. It is said that upon their refusal to pay
tribunes to al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir, there broke out a severe war in which
the women and girls of Tamim were taken prisoners. When Tamim's
representatives went to al-Nu`man's court to receive the prisoners, the
women were given option to either stay at al-Hirah or return home among the
Tamimi people. The daughter of Qays ibn `asim, the chief of the tribe, who
was among the prisoners and had married a courtier, chose to stay at the
court. Qays became utterly upset and decided to kill his daughters from then
on.
[78]
This custom gradually became widespread and it is said that the tribes Qays,
Asad, Hudhayl, and Bakr ibn Wa'il committed this crime from then on.
[79]
Of course, not everybody or tribe performed such nasty crimes. Some tribes
and dignified people, such as `Abd al-Muttalib, the Holy Prophet’s
grandfather, opposed it.
[80]
Individuals such as Zayd ibn `Amr ibn Nufayl and sa`sa`ah ibn Najiyah would
take those girls who were supposed to be buried alive due to their parents'
poverty and keep them safe.
[81]
Sometimes, they provided their parents with some camels.
[82]
However, there is a lot of evidence which indicates that this keeping of
such girls was common:
1. sa`sa`ah ibn Najiyah once told the Holy Prophet that he had saved 280
girls from being buried alive.
[83]
2. Qays ibn `asim killed twelve or thirteen of his daughters after he had
taken the decision to do so.
[84]
3. In the first treaty at al-`Aqabah (12 years after the Holy Prophet’s
Divine Mission) which the Holy Prophet held with some groups of Yathrib, one
paragraph concerned the avoidance of burying daughters alive.
[85]
4. After the Conquest of Mecca, one of the items of the treaty with the
women of this city stipulated that they should refrain from killing their
children.
5. The Holy Qur'an has condemned the practice of burying daughters alive on
several occasions:
And do not kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance
and yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong. (17:31)
And thus their associates have made fair seeming to most of the polytheists
the killing of their children, that they may cause them to perish and
obscure for them their religion. (6:137)
They are lost indeed who kill their children foolishly without knowledge,
and forbid what Allah has given to them, forging a lie against Allah.
(6:140)
And do not slay your children for fear of poverty-We provide for you and for
them. (6:151)
And when the female infant buried alive is asked for what sin she was
killed. (81:8-9)