Translators Introduction
In New York City on West Broadway
there is a bookstore affiliated with a Turkish Sufi order. In the summer of
1993 I purchased a few books there, and one of the other customers, a black man
wearing a small white cap began talking with me. After exchanging salāms, and after I told him that I
was working in Iran, he asked me whether I had ever seen a book by Imām
Khomeinī called Jihād al-Akbar.
I told him that although I was not familiar with the work, I thought that it
had been translated by Hamīd Algar, and included in his collection of
translations of Imām’s speeches, Islam
and Revolution (Mizan Press). He was not familiar with that work, but
insisted that the Muslims in America had a real need for translations of
Imām’s works, and he was particularly interested in Jihād al-Akbar. When I went home, I found that a couple pages
of the speeches of Imām which were given in Najaf and later collected
under the title Jihād al-Akbar
had been translated by Prof. Algar.
The following autumn, when I
returned to Iran, I found the Jihād
al-Akbar had recently published as a small booklet. Remembering the
American Muslim I met in the Sufi Bookstore, I decided to make a complete
translation of it. Since I lacked the competence in Farsi for such an
undertaking, I solicited the assistance of ‘Azīm Sarvdalīr, with whom
I was studying Farsi and doing other translations at Bunyād Baqīr al-‘Ulūm in Qum. Mr. Sarvdalīr was
happy to take up the project, which, with the encouragement of the Bunyād, was completed the following
June; Al-hamdulillāh!
This is a work in morals, in
Farsi and Arabic, akhlāq. It is
not a philosophical work, but a moral exhortation directed toward the seminary
students of Najaf, and toward the institution of the seminary, or hawzah ‘ilmiyyah, as well. The work
reveals the moral sensitivity of Imām Khomeinī, his paternal anxiety
regarding the seminarians and his dedication to the institution of the
seminary. Upon reading this work one will discover that along the revolutionary
fervor and condemnation of foreign imperialism there can be found a mystic’s
taste for spiritual devotions. The waters of ‘irfān (gnosis) run deep in the thought of Imām
Khomeinī and nourish his moral outlook. This work is a testimony to the
truth of Shahīd Mutahharī’s[3]
remark that ‘irfān and ethics
are both concerned with the improvement of character, but from different
perspectives. In ethical works one finds a description of virtues and vices and
moral prescriptions and proscriptions, while in ‘irfānī works one finds a description of a process
through which the soul moves toward Allah and acquires virtues corresponding to
the divine attributes along the way. The way of moral reform advocated by
Imām Khomeinī is a process of spiritual development in which the
adept learns to conquer and then lose interest in his worldly desires and
become totally devoted to God. This process is described as a journey toward
Allah, a journey which holds a central place in ‘irfān, which may be considered the kernel of Islam. This
journey is described in different ways and from a variety of viewpoints in the
poetry of the Sufis, in the transcendent philosophy of Mullā Sadrā,[4]
and in the poetry and teachings of Imām Khomeinī, as well.
Although the present work
consists of speeches delivered to the students at Najaf, the moral advice given
is particularly pertinent for all Muslims in the contemporary situation of
discord and confusion. Imām Khomeinī advises the seminarians to
abandon their quarrelling, which only serve as an opportunity for mischief on
the part of the enemies of Islam. In the Islamic world today, we also observe
that the opponents of the Islamic movement take advantage of disputes among
Muslims. Imām reminds the students that they do not possess sufficient
wealth and power to make these things worth fighting over even according to the
standards of materialism. Parallel remarks are appropriate for the Muslim world
as a whole, given the poverty and powerlessness which characterized the vast
masses of the Islamic ummah.
Imām sanctions the students that they should take heed of the fact that
the major purpose of the prophets and the Imāms has been spiritual
progress and moral improvement, and that the students must not content
themselves with learning a few terms of Islamic jurisprudence. The same warning
should be heeded by contemporary Muslims. We must not content ourselves with a
handful of slogans and the performance of a few rituals, but must take steps
for spiritual and moral growth. Not merely in the seminary of Najaf, but
wherever and to whom ever Islam is taught, this teaching must not confine
itself to a rehearsal of basic beliefs and necessary practices, but must be accompanied by the moral and
spiritual teachings which were the primary focus of the prophets and the
Imāms, peace be upon them all.
The present work may be read in
order to gain insight into the thought of the founder of the Islamic Revolution
of Iran. It may be read in order to become familiar with the sort of problems
which existed in Najaf at the time the lectures were delivered. It can be read
as an example of the type of moral preaching which could be expected from among
the best of Shi‘ite moral teachers of this age. It is a work which can be read
in order to learn something about history, sociology or anthropology, and in
all of these areas valuable lessons are to be learned. But more important than
any of these is the moral lessons to be drawn for the Islamic community in
general. Let us not content ourselves with ritual duties while ignoring the
need for moral reform. Let us appoint moral guides in all of our Islamic
educational institutions, so that Islamic education may become more truly a
training in submission to Allah, and let us draw upon the example as well as
the teachings of the prophets and the Imāms so that we may learn to seek
to commence the journey of the believer toward Allah, inshā Allāh!
The remainder of this
introduction consists of a few biographical remarks with particular reference
to the moral and spiritual training of Imām Khomeinī, may he rest in
peace.
Rūhullāh
Mūsawī Khomeinī, was born in 1902 in the town of Khomein, which
is about half way between Tehran and the southwestern city of Ahwāz.
Rūhullāh’s father and grandfather were religious scholars in Khomein.
His father, Āyatullāh Mustafā, is said to have been murdered by
bandits when Rūhullāh was less than six months old. His mother,
Hajar, was the daughter of the religious scholar Āqā Mīrzā
Ahmad Mujtahid Khānsārī. The boy was raised by his mother and an
aunt, both of whom died of cholera when he was six. His education was then
supervised by his older brother, Āyatullāh Pasandīdeh. At
nineteen, Rūhullāh traveled northwest from Khomein to the city of
Arāk, where he became a student of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Karīm
Hā’erī, a leading religious scholar of his day. The following year,
Shaykh Hā’erī and his student Rūhullāh moved to Qum, where
the Shaykh reorganized and revitalized the entire institution of religious
education in that city, which was already famous as a center of learning.
Rūhullāh studied in Qum until the death of Shaykh Hā’erī,
in 1936 after which he began teaching theology, ethics, philosophy, and
mysticism. It was during his first fourteen years in Qum that
Āyatullāh Khomeinī became familiar with the intertwined
traditions of philosophy and mysticism which flourished during Iran’s Safawid
period (16th and 17th centuries) and which continue to
exert an enormous influence on contemporary Shi‘ite thought.
When he arrived in Qum, Imām
Khomeinī began to receive private instruction in ethics with Hāj
Mīrzā Jawād Malekī Tabrīzī, the author of a book
entitled, The Secrets of Prayer (Asrār as-Salāt), Imām
Khomeinī also wrote a book on this topic, called The Secret of Prayer: Prayers of the Gnostics or Ascension of the
Wayfarers (Sirr as-Salāt:
Salāt al-‘Ārifīn yā Mi‘rāj as-Sālikīn).
His instruction under Mīrzā Jawād continued until the death of
the teacher, in 1925. Imām Khomeinī also studied the mystic
traditions from Hāj Mīrzā Abū’l-Hasan Rafi’ī
Qazvīnī, who was in Qum from 1923 to 1927. Qazvīnī is known
for his commentary on a supplication which is recited daily in the pre-dawn
hours during the month of Ramadān. Later, Imām Khomeinī would
also write a commentary on this prayer. Finally, and perhaps most importantly
among his spiritual guides, there was Āqā Mīrzā Muhammad
‘Alī Shāhābādī, the author of Spray from the Seas (Rashāhāt
al-Bahār), who was in Qum from 1928 to 1935. In the mystic tradition
of which Shāhābādī was a part, the phrase ‘spray from the
sea’ may be taken as a symbol for inspiration from God. It was with
Shāhābādī that Imām Khomeinī is reported to have
studied the Fusūs al-Hikam
[Bezels of Wisdom] of Ibn al-‘Arabī[5]
(d. 1240) and the important commentary on that work by Qaysarī (d. 1350).
In 1929, Imām Khomeinī
married, and a year later his first son, Mustafā, was born. Over the
course of the years, two other sons and four daughters were born. Mustafā
would grow up to be killed in Iraq by agents of the Shāh. The youngest son
Sayyid Ahmad, would become a secretary to his father, and afterward, a
political leader in his own right.
Recalling his years as a student
in Qum, Imām Khomeinī himself has publicly commented on the hostility
toward mysticism and philosophy which was to be found in certain quarters in
Qum, feelings which are still harbored by some members of the clergy. The story
is often repeated that when Imām had begun teaching philosophy in Qum and
his first son was a small child, some seminarians felt it necessary to perform
a ritual cleansing of a cup from which the child had drunk water because of his
impurity as the son of a teacher of philosophy! Imām reports that his
teacher, Shāhābādī, sought to oppose this hostility by
making people familiar with the doctrines of the mystics so they could see for
themselves that there was nothing inimical to Islam in the teachings of the
gnostics:
Once a group of merchants came to
see the late Shāhābādī (may God have mercy on him), and he
began to speak to them on the same mystical topics that he taught to everyone.
I asked him whether it was appropriate to speak to them of such matters and he
replied: “Let them be exposed just once to these heretical teachings! I too now
find it incorrect to divide people into categories and pronounce some incapable
of understanding these matters.”
One of the most dramatic efforts
of Imām Khomeinī to bring mysticism to the people occurred after the
Islamic Revolution with his Lectures on Sūrah
al-Fātihah from which the above report has been quoted. After the
Revolution, there were televised lessons on the interpretation of the Qur’an by
Āyatullāh Tāleqānī.[6]
When Āyatullāh Taleqānī died on September 10, 1979, about a
half year after the victory of the revolution, the televised commentary on the
Qur’an was taken up by a younger scholar. Imām Khomeinī suggested
that a more senior authority might be sought for the program. After consulting
among themselves, those responsible for the broadcast decided to request that
Imām himself provide the commentary. Imām responded that if the
cameras could be brought to his residence he would comply with the request. The
result was the Lectures on Sūrah
al-Fātihah, a stunning mystical interpretation of the opening verses
of the Qur’an, in which one of the dominant themes was the claim that the whole
world is a name of God. In these lectures Imām also contends that the
philosophers of Islam, the mystics and the poets have used different
terminologies to express the same insights, and he urges his viewers not to
reject what is taught by members of these groups until they understand what is
being expressed, even if the language used raises suspicions of heterodoxy.
Thus, Imām’s preaching in this area was very much a plea for tolerance.
Imām Khomeinī’s
emphasis on tolerance was not limited to mysticism and poetry. Imām
Khomeinī’s teacher in Islamic jurisprudence, Shaykh Hā’erī, was
succeeded in Qum by Āyātullāh Burūjerdī, who came to
be recognized as the supreme authority on the subject. After the death of
Āyatullāh Burūjerdī, in 1961, Imām Khomeinī came
to be recognized as one of several supreme experts in Islamic jurisprudence, a marjā‘-e taqlīd. In this role,
Imām Khomeinī issued a number of decrees which were looked upon with
suspicion by more conservative clerics. Many of the religious scholars in both
Sunnī and Shi‘ite legal schools have ruled that music and chess are
forbidden activities. Imām Khomeinī ruled that some forms of music
are permissible and that playing chess is not contrary to Islamic law. As a
result, interest in traditional Iranian music has thrived since the Revolution.
Imām Khomeinī has also encouraged women to play an expanded role in
society, to the chagrin of more conservative interpreters of Islamic law.
To Western observers it may seem
paradoxical that the very same man who preached tolerance with respect to the
perceived challenges to orthodoxy posed by philosophy, mysticism, poetry, and
music, should also have been so intolerant toward the proponents of
Westernization, toward the form of Marxism propagated in the name of Islam by
the People’s Mojahiden Organization (PMOI), and toward those who, like Salman
Rushdie, would insult the Prophet of Islam or his family. The apparent
contradiction is removed once it is recognized that Imām Khomeinī did
not value tolerance for its own sake, but for the sake of Islam. Central to
Imām Khomeinī’s understanding of Islam is gnosis, ‘irfān. In Sunnī Islam, the
exoteric and esoteric dimensions of religion have been kept largely distinct,
with the esoteric mostly confined to the Sufi orders. In Shi‘ite Islam, there
has been a long tradition in which many of the practices and teachings of the
Sufis have been integrated into the religious life and thought of an important
segment of the official clergy. Those form of mysticism, or gnosis, draws upon
the Sufi theory of Ibn al-‘Arabī, the philosophical mysticism of Sadr
ad-Dīn Shīrāzī[7]
(d. 1640) and Hādī Sabzewārī[8]
(d. 1878), both of whom were Shi‘ite clerics, and the poetic expression of
mysticism by Mawlāwī Jalāl ad-Dīn ar-Rūmī[9]
(d. 1273) and Hāfiz[10]
(d. 1391). The poetry is often set to music. Because of political and religious
repression, those involved in ‘irfān
often had to keep their teachings underground. Imām Khomeinī, in line
with sentiments his reports having been expressed by his teacher
Shāhābādī, sought to initiate a process through which ‘irfān could become public. This
process was not to be a sudden revolution. His own works on ‘irfān were not very widely
distributed during his lifetime, but a persistent emphasis on the mystical
elements of Shi‘te thought were interspersed among the more popular political
declaration, and may be found in The
Greatest Jihād, as well.
The revolutionary Islamic
movement led by Imām Khomeinī may even be viewed as the exoteric
dimension of the impetus to reveal Islamic mysticism to the public. The Islamic
revolution was a means to bring Islam into public life, from which it was being
marginalized during the reign of the Shāh. The process of making Islam
central to public life was also resisted by conservative religious groups, who
saw in this movement a departure from tradition. Imām Khomeinī argued
that the guardian jurist of Islamic law had the authority to modify the
traditional understanding of the law in order to protect the Islamic order.
Conservatives would argue that any break from tradition could only bring
deviation from Islamic order. The kind of judgment required by Imām
Khomeinī’s vision of Islamic government is one which goes beyond what is
provided for in traditional discussions of Islamic jurisprudence. It is a kind
of wisdom, however, which can be expected of the ‘perfect man’, the insān kāmil, the goal of
personal development in the mystic tradition.
An example of the way in which
his political awareness demanded a tolerance not found among more conservative
clerics may be found in his attitudes toward Sunnī Islam. In traditional
Shi‘ite circles it would not be considered permissible for a Shi‘ite to stand
behind a Sunnī prayer leader. Imām Khomeinī ruled that such
prayer was valid, and even himself publicly participated in ritual prayer
behind a Sunnī cleric.
Thus, the flexibility and
tolerance which characterized Imām Khomeinī’s thought do not stem
from the libertarian element in Islamic thought, but from a commitment to a
movement from the esoteric to exoteric dimensions of Islamic life, a movement
which demanded the implementation of Islamic law as well as the propagation of
mystical ideas.
Imām Khomeinī’s
attitudes toward mysticism and politics are especially well illustrated by his
invitation to President Gorbachev to embrace Islam. On January 7, 1989,
Imām Khomeinī sent a delegation to Moscow led by Āyatullāh
Jawād Āmulī who presented Imām’s letter of invitation to
President Gorbachev.[11]
In the letter, Imām Khomeinī congratulated Gorbachev for his
admission of the failures of communism, and he suggested that the Soviet leader
consider the alternative to communist ideology posed by Islam. In order to
acquaint the Russian leader with Islam, Imām Khomeinī recommended the
works of the philosophers Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā
(Avicenna), and the mystic, Ibn al-‘Arabī. Conservative clerics were
incensed that Imām should choose to represent Islamic thought through the
works of philosophers and a Sufi, instead of works of jurisprudence and
traditional devotional literature. President Gorbachev politely declined the
invitation to convert, although he said that he would consider the importance
of spiritual values in society. Imām Khomeinī appears to have been
genuinely disappointed that the response was not affirmative, and when a Soviet
delegate read Gorbachev’s reply to Imām Khomeinī in Tehran, Imām
repeatedly interrupted with criticism of the views expressed in the letter.
Such unconventional diplomacy demonstrates Imām’s propagation, despite
criticism from the clergy which he championed. It also provides an indication
of the unusual way in which mysticism and politics were combined in the
thinking of Imām Khomeinī.
Imām wrote several works
which treated mystical topics, or which treated topics in a way characteristic
of the mystical tradition. Their titles are suggestive: Commentary on the Supplication before Dawn (Sharh ad-Du‘ā as-Sahar),
The Lamp of Guidance to Vicegerency and Guardianship (Misbāh al-Hidāyat alā’l-Khilāfat wal-Wilāyah), The Countenance of Allah (Liqā’ Allāh), The Secret of Prayer: Prayers of the
Gnostics or Ascension of the Wayfarers (Sirr
as-Salāt: Salāt al-‘Ārifīn yā Mi‘rāj
as-Sālikīn), Annotation to
the Commentary on ‘Bezels of Wisdom’ (Ta’liqāt
alā Sharh al-Fusus al-Hikam),
Annotation to the Commentary on ‘The Lamp of Intimacy’ (Ta’liqāt alā Sharh al-Misbāh
al-Uns), two books of
commentaries and annotations to another commentary on a collection of reports
regarding the Prophet and Imāms called
Ras al-Jālūt, Lectures on Sūrah
al-Fātihah, Marginalia to ‘The Journeys’ (Hāshiyeh alā’l-Asfār), Disciplines of the Prayer (Ādāb
as-Salāt), Commentary on Forty
Sayings of the Prophet and Imāms (Chehel
Hadīth).
After he became a marjā‘-e taqlīd, political
events dominated the life of Imām Khomeinī. In 1963, the Shāh’s
forces massacred thousands who protested against the dictatorship. Imām
Khomeinī was arrested for his inflammatory speeches and was taken to
Tehran. Later he was released with the announcement that he had agreed to
refrain from further political activity. He denied that he had made any such
agreement and was picked up again. He was taken to an unknown destination by
car. When the car turned off the main highway, it is reported that Imām
imagined that he would be assassinated in a remote quarter of the desert. He felt
his heart to see if it was racing, but found out that it was calm. He narrated
that he was never afraid. He was taken to a small airstrip where a plane waited
to take him to exile in Turkey. The following year his place of exile was
changed to the shrine city of Najaf in southern Iraq. Imām Khomeinī
remained in Najaf for fourteen years, and it was during these years that the
lectures collected under the title, Jihād
al-Akbar were delivered. In 1978, the Shāh put pressure on the
Ba‘athist government in Iraq to expel Āyatullāh Khomeinī. After
being refused asylum at the airport in Kuwait, Imām commented that he
would spend his life traveling from one airport to another, but that he would
not be keep silence. Finally, he was admitted to France, where he resided at
Neauphle-le-Chāteaux, outside Paris. In February 1979, he returned triumphantly
to Iran and the Islamic Republic was launched.
Imām Khomeini was revered
for the simplicity of his life-style and for his rigorous attention to even
supererogatory details of Islamic ritual. He is said to have always faced Mecca
when he performed ablutions. He preferred to purchase the less expensive shoes.
If he drank half a glass of water, he would put a piece of paper over it to
keep the dust out and save the rest for later. Some claim that he had a special
relation with the twelfth Imām, the Mahdī, peace be upon him, the
awaited one who will defeat injustice prior to the final judgment. Such claims
are also part of the mystical tradition of Shi‘ite Islam.