Chapter 8: The Third Discussion
Spiritual Shi'ism and Political Shi'ism
Here I would like to draw attention to a point whose
clarification I consider to be of the utmost importance. Some investigators try
to distinguish between two aspects of Shi'ism, the first Spiritual Shi'ism and
the second Political Shi`ism. Spiritual Shi ism is believed to be the earlier
of the two. [156] It is also thought that the religious heads, or imams, of
Imamate Shi'ism (descended from Husayn) had retreated from politics after the
massacre of Karbala', devoting themselves only to guidance and worship, keeping
aloof of worldly affairs.
The reality, though, is that Shi'ism has never at any time
since its birth been a purely spiritual tendency. Rather, it was born in the
midst of Islam as a thesis for the continuation by Imam 'Ali of intellectual,
social and poetical leadership alike after the Prophet, in the manner
illustrated above with respect to the conditions that had given rise to
Shi'ism. Because of those conditions, it is not possible to isolate the
spiritual from the political side in this thesis, certainly no more than it is
to isolate it in Islam itself.
Therefore, Shi'ism cannot be subdivided in this way except
in the event where it no longer implies defending the future of the Call after
the Prophet, a future that is in equal need of intellectual authority as it is
of political leadership over the Islamic experiment. And here there existed a
wide range of allegiances to Imam `Ali among the Muslims, inasmuch as he was
considered to be just the person fit to resume the role of governing arrogated
by the three Caliphs.
This is precisely the loyalty that brought him to power
after the Caliph `Uthman's murder. [157] But it was neither spiritual nor
political Shi'ism, since Shiites believe `Ali to be an alternative to the three
Caliphs, the Prophet's direct successor (khalifah). The allegiance extended by Muslims to
the Imam had a wider range than Shi`ism proper, taken as a whole. But although
spiritual and political Shi`ism developed within the broad limits of this
loyalty, it cannot be regarded as an instance of a compartmentalized Shi`ism.
Imam `Ali commanded spiritual and intellectual loyalty from
the most prominent Companions at the time of Abu Bakr and `Umar - as
illustrated by Sahnan, Abu Dharr, 'Ammar and others. But this hardly means that
it was a spiritual Shi'ism divorced from the political side. It was an
expression of faith by the Companions in Imam `Ali's political as well as
intellectual leadership of the Islamic Mission after the Prophet. On the one
hand, their faith in the intellectual side of his leadership was reflected in
the spiritual fidelity alluded to above; on the other, their faith in the
political was reflected in their struggle with the Caliph Abu Bakr, and against
the attempt to divert power away from Imam `Ali toward another figure. [158]
In fact, the compartmental view of spiritual Shi'ism was not
unrelated to the emergence of political Shi`ism. Nor did it arise in the mind
of Shi'ite man except in resignation to a fait accompli. As a definite
formula for continuing the Islamic leadership in the hope of
building the Ummah - a way
of implementing the great drive for change begun by the Prophet - the
embers of Shi`ism were all but put out inside and transformed into pure belief
ensconced in the heart of man for solace and hope.
We now come to what is alleged to be the abandonment of
politics and the withdrawal from worldly affairs by the Imams of the Household
descended from Husayn. In the light of the foregoing, we might reiterate that
Shi`ism made for the continuation of Islamic leadership, and that Islamic
leadership simply meant pursuing that
project of change which the Prophet had begun, in order to complete the
construction of the Ummah on
the basis of Islam. It is not possible, therefore, to imagine the Imams
relinquishing the political aspect without renouncing Shi'ism altogether. What
contributed to the idea that they had abandoned the political aspect of their
leadership was their seeming failure to mount military action to overturn the
prevailing situation, the political aspect of leadership being taken strictly
in its narrow military sense. But there are many explicit utterances by the
Imams which make it plain that an Imam is always ready to take the military
course, provided he found enough assistance and the capacity to realize the
Islamic objectives beyond the military campaign itself. [159] When we trace the
course of the Shi'ite movement, we notice that its leadership, comprised of the
Imams of the Household, believed the transference of power alone to be
insufficient. The realization of change in an Islamic sense is impossible so
long as this power was not shored up by a popular base conscious of the goals
of power, believing in its theory of governance, acting to defend it,
explaining its stances to the larger populace and braving the storms.
Midway through the first century after the Prophet's death,
the Shiite leadership, shunned from power, sought constantly to return to rule
in the ways it deemed proper. It was convinced of the existence of popular
bases of consciousness, or vigilant Muhajirin,
Ansar and all those who
emulated their best actions. However,
half-a-century later, when little remained of these popular bases,
and with indecisive generations [160] newly emerging under the influence of
deviationism, the accession to power by the Shiite movement would never have
achieved the larger goal; the popular bases that reinforced consciousness and
sacrifice no longer existed. In the face of this situation, there were only two
possible avenues for action:
One, action for the sake of rebuilding the popular and
conscious bases that could properly pave the way to a transfer of power.
Two, stirring the Islamic Ummah's conscience and
will; safeguarding some degree of life and stalwartness to fortify the Ummah
against abdicating unconditionally its identity and honour to deviationist
rulers.
The first option was the one chosen by the Imams themselves;
whereas the second was taken by the revolutionary partisans of 'Ali as they
sought through fearless sacrifice to sustain the Islamic conscience and will.
The Imams used to support the more sincere among them. Imam `Ali b. Musa al-Rida
once said to Caliph Ma'mun, in reference to Zayd b. `Ali al-Shahid, that
he was one of the learned from the House of Muhammad. He was angered for the
sake of God, fought enemies until he was killed in God's way. Abu Mus'a b.
Ja`far has related to me that he heard his father Ja'far b. Muhammad say:
"May God have merry on my uncle Zayd. He made summons on behalf of al-Rida,
of the House of Muhammad. Had he triumphed, he would have fulfilled his
promise. Zayd b. `Ali did not call what was not in his right to do so. He was
more heedful toward God than that. He simply) said: I summon you to al-Rida,
of the House of Muhammad." [161]
In one account, those of the House of Muhammad who ventured
forth were mentioned before Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, who then answered,
"I and my partisans will always be well so long as there is someone from
the House of Muhammad who ventures forth. How I long for him to venture forth!
And incumbent upon me is the maintenance of his dependents." [162]
In sum, the Imams' abandonment of direct military action
against the deviationist rulers did not imply that they had foresaken the
political aspect of their leadership and devoted themselves solely to worship.
It expressed merely a difference in the form of social action, and was limited
by the actual conditions. It also expressed a profound grasp of the nature of
reform activity and the method by which to achieve it.
Chapter 9: Appendix -
The Moral and Intellectual Preparation for 'Ali's Guardianship and Succession
Introduction
Dr. `Abd al Jabbar Shararah
Initiated by the Prophet, the intellectual and moral
preparation for 'Ali b. Abi Talib's Guardianship and Succession proceeded along
two parallel but complementary lines: the preparation of Ali and of the Ummah, both at the same time. While the
Prophet, as Leader, was committed to a special intellectual and doctrinal
education for `Ali that conformed to a rigorous daily schedule, he also took
charge of the Muslim Ummah's mental adjustment. He undertook to
educate it intellectually and doctrinally in order firmly to establish `Ali's
Guardianship. He wanted to ensure that `Ali was qualified to lead the journey,
the whole experience, of Islam immediately after he departs. According to
numerous sources, as we shall see, direct Revelation was another interposing
factor pointing in this direction.
Invariably, the Qur'an comes down sometimes lauding Ali's
virtues and other times pointing to his special qualities. It identifies him as
being unique, to the point of making the delivery of God's Message conditional
upon the announcement of his Guardianship or its proclamation to the Ummah. We shall be seeking to establish this
in our appendix to Imam al-Sadr's already deep and original inquiry.
We shall arrange our own study into three discussions. The
first discussion will present 'Ali's intellectual and moral preparation for the
task of leading after the Prophet. The second will deal with the intellectual
and moral preparation of the Muslim Ummah for the sake of this task. The
third will demonstrate the pertinence of `Ali's unique and special knowledge of
the Qur'an to this task.
In this summary essay, we shall try to shed light on these
facts by relying on the accepted rules and principles of scholarly investigation,
without exaggeration or artifice. The study will be based on had'ith and exegetical works written by
scholars, traditionists, renowned researchers and prominent Sunnis. We pray
that God may extend His assistance.
Chapter 10: The First Discussion
One may, in all certainty, state that `Ali b. Abi Talib's
apostolic preparation, both "moral and intellectual," began upon the
Prophet's first burst of Divine Revelation. The latter took practical steps in
order to reach his intended goal of entrusting `Ali with the task of leading,
"socially and politically" immediately after his death. It would
appear from the course of events - and from what biographical works,
histories and the more reliable transmitters have related - that this was
achieved in two ways.
First, as Leader, the Prophet was himself committed to
taking `Ali under his tutelage from childhood, taking charge of his moral
education, attending to him, doing his utmost never to be separated from him
except when necessary.
Second, of all the Companions, `Ali was singled out in terms
of status, knowledge and position, which pertained to the very existence and
future of Islam.
A. With regard to the first point, biographical works and
books in traditions all have endeavoured to illustrate many pertinent details.
But the matter of the Prophet taking `Ali under his charge since childhood and
educating him in his own house was a conspicuous part of his noble life. [163]
It is enough to recall what Imam 'Ali himself has stated in his sermon known as
"al Qasiah":
You well know my place of close kinship and special
standing with God's Messenger. He put me in his lap when I was a child, embraced me close to his heart, offered me shelter
at his berth. And there, admitted into physical contact with him, I scented his fragrance. He chewed the
food bits to feed me. Never did he find in me a mendacious word, nor a
patterer's deed. I used to follow him
as the weaned young camel does its mother's trail. And every day he would bring
up some new teaching in morals,
admonishing me to emulate him. Every year he retired to [the Cave of] Hira'
where I alone would see him. No
single roof then had joined God's Messenger and Khadijah in Islam but that I was its third member. I witnessed the light of the revelation
and message, and inhaled the scent of prophethood ... [164]
The picture related by Imam 'Ali himself regarding the
manner in which the Prophet used to treat him reveals the true dimensions of
the purpose.
A special training was intended for `Ali. Extraordinary care
and effort were taken to ensure that he remain very close to the light of
Divine Revelation and exposed to the "fragrance of prophethood"; that
he be one of three persons in the Prophet's house at the time of revelation.
Occupying such an eminent place, he imbibed his first lessons and instruction
directly from the Prophet. All this was reflected in his intellectual and
doctrinal make-up, for "Never shall he bow down to any idol." [165] Never at any moment
was his mind confounded by idolatry, as his behaviour shows: "Not a
mendacious word, nor a patterer's deed ...."
All this reveals,
without the shadow of a doubt, a special moral preparation. What is noteworthy
in this respect is that the Prophet's commitment to put `Ali in his special
care was not limited to the period of childhood or boyhood. And it did not stop
at any specific phase -the Prophet had made sure that `Ali was always at
his side, day and night; as when `Ali says, "My visitations to the Prophet were
of two kinds: one by nigh and another by day..." [166] Indeed, one never
finds the Messenger of God ever separated from or leaving behind `Ali, except
in the instance where it was necessary to protect the Prophet's life, or to
safeguard the Islamic Call against danger. To corroborate, let us mention one example
for each occasion.
i) The first context is linked to the protection of the
Prophet's life. On the night of his blessed flight to Medina, the Prophet had
left `Ali behind to lie in his bed [167] as a subterfuge against the Meccans
lying in wait for him; it allowed him to evade their plot to kill him. [168]
With this, God revealed the following: "And there is he who barters
himself to earn the satisfaction of God..." (Qur'an II:207, "al-Baqarah")
- as recalled by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. [169]
ii) The second context is linked to the protection of the
Islamic Mission. The Prophet had wished to go on one of his military
expeditions called Tabuk. So he left 'Ali behind in Medina as his vicegerent (khalifah). [170] Ibn Ubayy
b. Salul, who headed the group of "Hypocrites," had remained in the
city, and the situation demanded that the Prophet leave `Ali behind in the hope
of forestalling any unexpected development that might threaten the Prophet's
reign in Medina. Said al-Tabari:
With the Messenger of God departed [i.e. to Tabuk], among
the "Hypocrites" and the irresolute who stayed behind figured `Abd
Allah b. Ubayy, who was brother to the Banu `Awf b. al-Khazraj. Abd Allah
b. Nabtal was brother to Banu `Amr b. `Awf, and Rifa`ah b. Zayd b. al Tabun to
Banu Qaynuqa`. And all - that is all those mentioned - were among
the most infamous of the "Hypocrites"; they counted among those who
used to conspire against Islam and its people.
He also added: "Ibn Hamid has told us that Salamah
related from Ibn Ishaq - who related it from `Umar b. Ubayd, who related
it from Hasan al-Basri - that God has brought down [these words:
`Indeed they had plotted sedition before, and upset matters for thee..."'
(Qur'an 9:48, "al-Tawbah"). But here, the "Hypocrites"
understood that, with `Ali remaining in Medina, the opportunity was lost.
"The Hypocrites," continues al-Tabari, thus started to calumniate about `Ali b. Abi
Talib. They claimed that he was [chosen to be] left behind only because he was
a burden to [the Prophet, who wanted only release from him. When they made
these claims, `Ali took his sword and went off to find God's Messenger at Jurf,
situated at some distance from Medina, and there told [him]: "Prophet of
God! The Hypocrites allege that you have kept me behind; that you find me a
burden and that you seek release from me." [The Prophet] replied,
"They lie. I left you behind for what [lay in wait behind me. Do you not
consent, O 'Ali, to having the same position with respect to me that Aaron did
with Moses, save that no Prophet shall ever come after me?" With this,
`Ali returned to Medina, and God's Messenger resumed his journey. [171]
Al-Bukhari [172] and Muslim [173] have recorded the
tradition relating to (`Ali's) "position"(or "station")
according to Sa`d b. Abi Waqqis, who said that
The Messenger of God has [chosen] to leave `Ali behind in
Medina during one of his expeditions. So `Ali said to him: "O Messenger of
God! You have left me behind with the women and the children." I heard
God's Messenger reply, "But you consent to be related to me in the same
station that Aaron was to Moses, save that there shalt be no prophethood after
me." [174]
One striking fact is that the Prophet used to express
anxiety and apprehension at `Ali's absence from him; he eagerly awaited him and
sought reassurance. Ibn Kathir [175] related Umm `Atiyyah's statement that
"The Prophet sent off fighters, and among them was `Ali. I heard the
Prophet say: `O God, do not take my life before you let me see 'Ali again.`
[176]
Occasionally, it happened that when offered a meal, the
Prophet could not bear eating it alone; nor was he satisfied with praying to
God that `Ali may join him, but that this be made an opportunity for
demonstrating the station and rank of `Ali. It is recorded about Anas b. Malik
that he related, "The Prophet had a fowl (in one account a `roasted fowl'
[177]) and uttered: `O God, bring me this your most beloved person, so he may
eat this fowl.' And God brought him", who then ate it with him..."
[178] It is noteworthy that some accounts speak of an attempt , after that
appeal, to turn `Ali away upon his arrival at the Prophet's house; but it was
thwarted by the Prophet's own intervention, according to what Ibn Kathir has
related. [179] However, the apparent sense of the account is that the Prophet
meant also to affirm and to establish that `Ali was best loved by God. [180]
All this leaves little doubt that our Prophet's special
education of `Ali was aimed at preparing and training him for the
responsibility of leading the Mission of Islam, and not merely to become part
of its political staff or personnel. The Prophet was committed to educating and
to training the Companions collectively, but not to the same degree or with the
same method and attention as he was with `Ali. This shows that the
responsibility 'Ali had been charged with was much weightier than that of the
other Companions.
B. The second way alluded to above concerns the fact that
'Ali had been singled out; it concerns his competence in knowledge -particularly
Qur'anic - and the positions which were historically decisive to the
Prophet and to the Mission. It concerns his firm training in the provisions of
the law. There is abundant evidence for this. Anyone who persuses the books on
traditions, biography and history would profit immensely in this regard. [181]
Let us now cite some examples that support our idea,
together with the evidence for them.
The Prophet had undertaken, both on his own and by Divine
Command, the task of inculcating `Ali, as he did no one else, in the learned
and intellectual knowledge of the Qur'an. He hoped to do it with respect to the
root principles and sources of learning, reflective wisdom and its rules, and
by instructing him in the provisions of the law, its allowances and
prohibitions.
Tradition has it that 'Ali uttered, "The Messenger of
God has taught me countless pathways to knowledge, opening for me a thousand
others for each one..." [182] `Ali himself sometimes used to hasten to the
Prophet in quest of knowledge, learning and judgments. At other times, the
Prophet himself initiated the instruction: "Whenever I questioned the
Prophet, he obliged; when I remained silent, he anticipated me..." [183]
At one time, he declared, "God has given me an inquisitive tongue and a sensible
heart.." [184] In this connection, Imam 'Ali stated in a lengthy hadith,
Every verse that has come down to the Messenger of God he
recited or dictated to me, and I wrote it down in my own hand. He taught me its
interpretation and explanation, its abrogating and abrogated parts, clear and
allegorical verses, particular and general injunctions. He invoked God that He
may give me understanding of it and that I may commit it to memory. So I did
not forget a single verse of God's Book, not any knowledge that he transmitted
to me. I wrote it down, from the moment of his invocation. The Messenger of God
spared no knowledge taught to him by God concerning what is allowed and what
prohibited, no command or proscription - now and for ever - but
that he taught it to me and that committed to memory. And I have not forgotten
one letter of it ... [185]
Al-Suyuti asserts
that Mu`ammar - as related by Wahb and, after him, Abu al-Tufayl -
said the following: "I heard 'Ali giving an address and saying: `Ask me.
By God, nothing will ye ask that I shall not discuss. So ask me about the Book
of God and, by God, there is not a verse that I shall not know - whether
it was revealed at night or in the day,
on a mountain or on shore..."' [186]
Al-Suyuti also affirms, "Verily, none of the Companions dared
to say, `Ask me,' except `Ali..."
[187]
Everything that 'Ali had
talked about, of which history has left reliable record, was attested to by the
prominent Companions. The scholars and the most prominent among them own to it.
In his al Hilyah, Abu Na'im records that Ibn Mascud had said, "The
Qur'an has come down in seven recitals, none of which is without its explicit [zahir]
and implicit [batin] meanings. And `Ali b. Abi Talib
[understood] both the explicit and the implicit meanings." [188] It is
related that Ibn `Abbas had uttered: `By God, 'Ali b. Abi Talib was given nine-tenth
of the knowledge." [189] Also quoted from him are the words: "We used
to discourse over how the Prophet had assigned `Ali sundry [lit.,
seventy] responsibilities which he assigned to no one else." [190] In
practice, `Ali was the authority for the Companions in respect of every learned
or administrative question that occurred to them, every juridical dilemma. It
is affirmed of `Umar b. al-Khattab, the Second Caliph, that he said,
"Without `Ali, `Umar would have perished," [191] also uttering,
"God forbid that there be a problem and no Abu Hasan to [solve] it.." [192] He
is further said to have declared: "The most decisive [aqda] of us is Ali [193] where
"decisiveness" implied knowledge of all the legal provisions.