The Order in which the Verses of the Qur'an were Revealed
That the chapters and verses were not revealed in one place but rather
in stages over a period of twenty-three years during the Prophet's mission
is authenticated not only by historical evidence but also from evidence
from the various verses. In XVII:106 we read: "And it is a Qur'an
that we have divided that you may recite it to mankind at intervals and
we have revealed it by (successive) revelations. " As further proof
there are abrogating and abrogated verses which are directly related to
events from different periods and circumstances and which obviously were
not revealed at one time.
At this point we should note that the chapters and verses were not revealed
in the order in which they are set out; that is the first chapter "al-Fatihah"
(The Opening) was revealed after "The Cow", "The Family
of 'Imran," "Women," and "The Table Spread."
This is true also for the order of the verses which do not necessarily
follow chronologically. The content of a Qur'anic text may for example
show that the content of some chapters and verses concord with the first
period of the Prophet's mission - like the chapters "The Clot,"
and "Nun," but are recorded at the end of the Qur'an.
Many chapters and verses which correspond to the time after the migration
like "The Cow," "The Family of 'Imran," "Women,"
"The Spoils" and "Repentance" have been placed
at the beginning of the Qur'an.
The contents of the chapters and verses are thus directly related to
the events, circumstances and different needs of the period of the Prophet's
mission: the chapter and verses which only deal with the calling of the
polytheists to belief in God's oneness and the struggle against the idol-worshippers
correspond to a time before the migration when the Prophet was inviting
the people to Islam in Mecca.
The verses dealing with battles and those dealing with social laws were
revealed after the events and circumstances associated with the establishment
and progress of the Islamic society in Medina.
Conclusions to be Drawn
We may divide the chapters and Qur'anic verses according to the place,
time and circumstance of their revelation:
Some of the chapters and verses are Meccan and some Medinan; usually
those revealed before the Prophet's migration are counted as Meccan. The
majority of the chapters, and especially the shorter ones, are of this
type. Those revealed after the migration are counted as Medinan even though
they may have been revealed outside Medina or even in Mecca.
Some chapters and verses were revealed while the Prophet was travelling
and some while he was resident in a place. The verses are also divided
according to whether they were revealed by day or by night, in peace or
in war, or when the Prophet was on earth or in the heavens, or whether
he was alone or with others. In the light of these different classifications
we may study the reasons for the revelations.
Some chapters were revealed more than once such as the chapter "al-Fatihah,"
which was revealed once in Mecca and once in Medina. Some verses were revealed
several times like, "Which is it of the favours of your Lord do you deny,"
in the chapter "The Beneficent" which is repeated thirty times, and the
verse, "And indeed your Lord He is truly the Mighty, the Merciful,' which
is repeated eight times.
Sometimes one verse occurs in more than one chapter such as "they
say: when is the fulfillment of promise, if you are truthful."
We find, too, that a sentence appears as a complete verse in one chapter
and as part of another verse elsewhere; for example, the sentence, "Allah!
there is no God save Him, the Alive, the Eternal," is a complete
verse in the beginning of "The Family of "Imran," Yet, in
"The Cow" it is part of the "al-Kursi" verse.
Most chapters and verses, however, were revealed in one place at one time
and do not recur in the Book.
Similar verses appear in different places in the Qur'an because of certain
subjects which demand repetition. One of the significant features of the
Quran is the difference in the length of the chapters. We may compare "Abundance"
(the shortest chapter) and "The Cow" (the longest).
Likewise we may compare the length of verses, with the shortest being
the single arabic word "mudhammatan" (dark green with foliage)
and the longest, composed of thirty sentences being the two hundred and
eighty-second verse of "The Cow" (whose subject concerns
debt).
All these differences are in accordance with the demands of the revelation.
Sometimes it happens that two verses are closely connected in meaning but
differ greatly in length; for example, the thirtieth and thirty-first verses
of "The Cloaked One", the first being a single sentence and
the second more than eleven sentences.
We should not forget that most of the shorter verses like "The
Dawn" and "The Night" are Meccan, and those whose
subject matter is treated in greater length and detail are Medinan. The
first verse to be revealed to the Prophet was during the revelation of
the first five verses of "The Clot" and the last to be revealed was verse
281 of "The Cow": "And guard yourselves against a day
in which you will be brought back to Allah. Then every soul will be paid
in full that which it has earned and they will not be wronged.
"
The Reasons for the Revelations
Many of the verses are connected with events and circumstances which
took place as the Prophet called the people to Islam, for example "The
Cow".
Other chapters, like "The Tribe", refer to the exile of
the Banu al-Nadir and the chapter "The Coursers" was revealed
for the bedouin Arabs of the Dry Valley and other tribes.
Some chapters or verses were revealed because of the need to explain
the laws and directions of Islam; for example, the chapter "Women"
which defined marriage and the inheritance of women, "The Spirits"
which explains how to deal with the prisoners-of-war captured as booty
and, the chapter "Divorce" which was revealed, as its name
suggests, to explain divorce.
The circumstances leading to the revelation of these chapters are called
"reasons for revelation" and there are countless traditions
on this subject.
Amongst the Sunni's there are many traditions which deal with the reasons
for revelation; several thousand narrations may be enumerated (although
in the Shi'ah School only a few hundred may be counted). Many of these
are without a chain of narration and are not accepted as fully trustworthy;
moreover, a considerable number are classified as weak. The dubious nature
of the majority of these may be ascribed to the following reasons. Firstly,
it is obvious from the form of many of these sayings that the narrator
had not learned them through oral transmission but rather based on his
own judgement, that the revelation of a certain verse was connected with
certain events. Thus the narrator links a certain event to a verse of suitable
meaning mentioned in the tradition.
This is a subjective view, carried out through ijtihad or personal reflection
upon the matter, and not the actual reason for revelation learned orally
through transmission from the Prophet. As proof of this argument, we may
cite many inconsistencies amongst these traditions. There are verses, for
example, recorded as having several conflicting "reasons for revelation"
which are tatally unconnected with each other.
Ibn 'Abbas, for example, who is not alone in this practice, relates
several "reasons for the revelation"' of one single verse. The existence
of such conflicting reasons is because many have been arrived at through
subjective deliberation rather than transmitted directly from the Prophet.
This results in one narrator attributing a certain verse to a particular
event while another narrator attributes it to another event.
On other occasions a narrator relates two different reasons for the
revelation of one verse and thus implicates himself in two conflicting
views; Then he rejects the first view in favour of the second. We are led
to conclude, moreover, that most of these narrations are fabrications or
deceitfully transmitted under the pretence of trustworthy narrators. Such
doubt concerning the validity of many of these traditions greatly endangers
their credibility.
Secondly, it has been related with certainty that the early Caliphs
strictly prohibited the recording and writing down of the narrations and,
whenever a sheet of paper or tablet was found on which a saying had been
written, it was burned. This prohibition lasted until nearly the end of
the first century after Hijrah, that is, for a period of about ninety years.
The effect of this prohibition was that the narrators and scholars of sayings
were free to make small additions or changes during oral transmission of
the saying. These additions gradually accumulated until the original meaning
of the saying was lost.
This becomes very clear on investigation of an event or subject which
has been related by two different narrators; one may come across a saying
which describes an event and see the same event described in a different
way by another narrator. False sayings were not only introduced by attribut-
ing them to respected narrators but also by the hypocrites. Their sayings
soon became part of the main body of sayings and this further undermined
the credibility of this particular section of the Science of tradition.
The Method Used in Describing "The Reasons for the Revelations"
Past scholars of Islam, and in particular the Sunni scholars, attached
great importance to the order of revelation of the chapters. Among the
narration on the subject is that of Ibn 'Abbas, who has said that "the
beginning of each chapter which was revealed in Mecca was recorded as having
been revealed in that very place, then God added what He wanted to it."
The following is the order of revelation of the Qur'an (beginning with
the Meccan verses):
(1) Read in the name of your Lord. (XCVI:I)
(2) Nun. (LXVIII:I)
(3) O, you wrapped up in your raiment. (LXXIII:1)
(4) O you wrapped up in your cloak. (LXXIV:I)
(5) The power of Abu Lahab will perish. (CXI:I)
(6) When the sun is overthrown. (LXXXI:I)
(7) Praise the name of your Lord, the Most High. (LXXXVII:I)
(8) By the night enshrouding. (XCII:I)
(9) By the Dawn. (LXXXIX:I)
(10) By the morning hours. (XCIII:I)
(11) Have we not caused your breast to expand. (XCIV:I)
(12) By the declining day. (CIII:I)
(13) The Courses. (C:I)
(14) Indeed, we have given you abundance. (CVIII:I)
(15) Rivalry in worldly increase distracts you. (CII:I)
(16) Have you observed him who denies the din. (CVII:I)
(17) Say: O disbelievers! (CIX:I)
(18) Have you not seen your Lord dealt with the owners of the elephant.
(CV:I)
(19) Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the daybreak. (CXIII:I)
(20) Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of Mankind. (CXIV:I)
(21) Say: He is God, the One (CXII:I)
(22) By the Star. (LIII:I)
(23) He Frowned. (LXXX:I)
(24) Indeed we have revealed it on the Night of Power. (XCVII:I)
(25) By the Sun and its brightness. (XCI:I)
(26) By the heaven, holding mountains of the stars. (LXXXV:I)
(27) By the Fig. (XCV:I)
(28) For the Taming of the Quraish. (CVI:I)
(29) The Calamity. (CI:I)
(30) No, I swear by the Day of Resurrection. (LXXV:I)
(31) Woe to every slandering traducer. (CIV:I)
(32) By the emissary winds (LXXVII:I)
(33) Qaf (L:I)
(34) No, I swear by this city. (XC:I)
(35) By the heaven and the morning star. (LXXXVI:I)
(36) The hour drew near. (LIV:I)
(37) Sad. (XXXVIII:I)
(38) The Heights. (VII:I)
(39) Say (O Muhammad): it is revealed ... (LXXII:I)
(40) Ya Sin. (XXXVI:I)
(41) The Criterion. (XXV:I)
(42) The Angels. (XXXV:I)
(43) Kaf Ha Ya 'Ayn Sad. (XIX:I)
(44) Ta'ha'. (XX:I)
(45) The Reality. (LVI:I)
(46) Ta Sin Mim (The Poets). (XXVI:I)
(47) Ta sin. (XXVII:I)
(48) The Story. (XXVIII:I)
(49) The Children of Israel. (XVII:I)
(50) Jonah. (X:I)
(51) Hud. (XI:I)
(52) Joseph. (XII:I)
(53) The Exile. (XV:I)
(54) The Cattle. (VI:I)
(55) Those who set the ranks.(XXXVI:I)
(56) Luqman. (XXXI:I)
(57) Saba. (XXXIV:I)
(58) The Troops. (XXXIX:I)
(59) Ha Mim (The Believers). (XL:I)
(62) Ha Mim Ornaments of Gold. (XLIII:IX)
(63) Smoke. (XLIV:I)
(64) Crouching. (XLVI:I)
(65) The Wind Curved Sandhills. (XLVI:I)
(66) The Winnowing Winds. (LI:I)
(67) The Overwhelming. (LXXXVIII:I)
(68) The Cave (XVIII:I)
(69) The Bee. (XVI:I)
(70) Indeed We Sent Noah. (IXXI:I)
(71) Abraham. (XIV:I)
(72) The Prophets. (XXI:I)
(73) The Believers. (XXIII:I)
(74) The Prostration. (XXXII:I)
(75) Mount Sinai. (LII:I)
(76) The Sovereignty. (LXVII:I)
(77) The Reality. (IXIX:I)
(78) A Questioner Questioned . (LXX:I)
(79) About What do They question one another. (LXXXIII:I)
(80) Those who drag forth. (LXXIX:I)
(81) When the heaven is cleft apart. (IXXXII:I)
(82) When the Heaven is split asunder. (IXXXIV:I)
(83) The Romans. (XXX:I)
(84) The Spider. (XXIX:I)
(85) Woe to the defrauders. (LXXXIII:I)
(86) The Cow. (II:I)
(87) The Spoils of War. (VIII:I)
(88) The Family of 'Imran. (III:I)
(89) The Clans. (XXXIII:I)
(90) She that is to be examined. (LX:I)
(91) Women. (IV:I)
(92) When the earth is shaken. (XCIX:I)
(93) Iron (LVII:I)
(94) Muhammad (XLVII:I)
(95) The Thunder. (XIII:I)
(96) The Beneficent. (LV:I)
(97) Man. (IXXVI:I)
(98) Divorce. (LXV:I)
(99) The Clear Proof. (XCVIII:I)
(100) Exile. (LIX:I)
(101) When God's help arrives. (CX:I)
(102) Light (XXIX:I)
(103) The Pilgrimage. (XXII:I)
(104) The Hypocrites. (LXIII:I)
(105) She that Disputes (IVIII:I)
(106) The Private Apartments. (XLIX:I)
(107) Banning. (LXVI:I)
(108) The Congregation . (LXII:I)
(109) Mutual Disillusion. (LXIV:I)
(110) The Ranks. (LXI:I)
(111) Victory. (XLVIII:I)
(112) The Table Spread. (V:I)
(113) The Immunity (Repentance). (IX:I)
Further Traditions Concerning the Order and Place Revelation of the
Chapters
The tradition of Ibn 'Abbas mentions one hundred and thirteen chapters,
the chapter "al-Fatihah" not being counted among them. There is another
saying, related by al-Bayhaqi from 'Ikrimah, which enumerates one hundred
and eleven chapters, the three chapters "al-Fatihah," "The Heights," and
"Counsel" not being mentioned. When al-Bayhaqi relates this same tradition
from Ibn 'Abbas it includes all one hundred and fourteen chapters. The
tradition of al-Bayhaqi reckons "The Defrauders" as one of the Medinan
chapters in opposition to the other traditions which count it as Meccan.
The order mentioned in these two traditions for both the Meccan and Medinan
chapters is different from that of other tradi-
Another tradition, related from 'Ali ibn Abi Talhah, says: The chapter
"The Cow" was revealed in Medina and "The Family of 'Imran," "Women," "The
Table Spread," "Spirits of War," "Repentance," "The Pilgrimage," "Light,"
"the Clans," "Those Who Deny," "Victory," "Iron," "She That Disputes,"
"Exile," "She That Is To Be Examined," "The Helpers of Allah (The Ranks),"
"Mutual Disillusion," "O Prophet if you divorce women," "O Prophet why
do you ban," "The Dawn," "The Night," "We have revealed it in the night
of power," "The Clear Proof," "When the earth shakes," "When the help of
Allah comes," and the rest of the chapters were revealed in Mecca.
The intention of the tradition seems only to establish the difference
between the Medinan and Meccan chapters and to define the order of revelation
of the chapters mentioned. The chapters "Table Spread" and "Repentance"
are, without doubt, later in revelation than that indicated in this tradition.
Moreover, chapters "The Dawn," "The Night," and "The Night of Power," are
counted as Medinan chapters, whereas the above tradition counts them as
Meccan. Likewise, "The Thunder," "The Beneficent," "Man," "The Congregation,"
"The Private Apartments" are considered as Meccan, where- as in the above
tradition they are counted as Medinan.
In another tradition related by Qatadah, "The Cow," "The Family of 'Imran,"
"Women," "The Table Spread," "Immunity," "The Thunder," "The Bee," "The
Pilgrim- age," "The Light," "The Clans," "Muhammad," "Victory," "The Private
Apartments," "Iron," "The Beneficent," "She that disputes," "Exile," "She
that is to be Examined," "The Ranks," "The Congregation," "The Hypocrites,"
"Mutual Disillusion," "Divorce," the first thirteen verses of "O You Prophet!
Why do you ban," "When the earth Shakes" and "When the help of Allah comes,"
were revealed in Medina and the rest in Mecca. This tradition is contrary
to the previous traditions and, in particular, with regard to the mention
of "The Defrauders," "Man," and "The Clear Proof."
This tradition is, however, unacceptable according to the Science of
traditions, being disconnected from direct transmission from the Prophet.
It is also unclear whether Ibn 'Abbas learned of the order of revelation
from the Prophet himself or from some other unidentified person, or arrived
at it by subjective decision.
If the latter is the case, it has no value or authenticity but for himself.
It has also no value historically, as Ibn 'Abbas did not have close contact
with the Prophet. It is obvious that he could not have been present nor
a witness to the revelation of all these chapters. Even if we suppose the
tradition to be true, it is still not totally acceptable in matters outside
the law of the shari'ah.
The only way to discover the true order of the chapters, and whether
they are Meccan or Medinan, is to examine the content of the chapters and
to compare them with the circumstances and social reality before and after
the migration. Such a method is effective in certain cases; the content
of chapters "Man," "The Coursers," and the "Defrauders" testify to their
being Medinan, although some of these traditions only establish them as
Meccan.
The Gathering of the Qur'an into One Volume (Before the Death of
the Prophet)
The influence of the Qur'an, which was revealed in separate chapters
and verses, increased day by day. Its eloquence and miraculous clarity
transfixed the Arabs who attached great importance to fine language; they
came from far and wide to hear and learn a few verses from the Prophet.
However, the notables of Mecca and the leaders of Quraysh, who were idolators
and bitter enemies of the Prophet and of Islam, tried to prevent the people
from getting close to the Prophet; they tried to frighten off the Arabs
by telling them the Qur'an was magic.
Despite this people came, unknown to friends, family and servants, in
the dark of night to a place near the Prophet's house and listened to the
Prophet reading the Qur'an.
The efforts of the early Muslims in listening to, memorizing and recording
the Qur'an were stimulated by another motive: they valued the Qur'an as
a sacred document, being the word of God; they were also obliged to read
the chapter "al- Fatihah" and a portion of another part of the Qur'an during
their prayers. It was also the Qur'an through which the Prophet had been
commanded to instruct people in the laws of Islam .
This study and devotion to the Qur'an became more ordered and comprehensive
after the Prophet emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim
community. He ordered a considerable number of The companions to recite
the Qur'an and to learn and teach the laws which were being revealed daily.
So important was this activity that, according to special permission granted
by God in chapter "Repentance," verse 122, these scholars were relieved
of their obligation to fight jihad (so called Holy War).
Since most of the Prophet's companions, (in particular those who had
emigrated from Mecca to Medina), were unable to read or write, the Prophet
ordered them to learn from the Jewish prisoners-of-war the simple writing
of the time. Thus a group of the companions gradually became literate.
Those of this group who engaged in the recitation of the Qur'an, learning
by heart the chapters and verses were called qurra'; it was from amongst
this group that forty (some report seventy) died as martyrs in an accident
called Bi'r Ma'unah.
The Qur'an was recorded, as it was revealed, on tablets, bones and the
wide flat end of the date palm fronds. There is no doubt that most chapters
were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous
sayings by both Sunni and Shiiah sources, relating the Prophet's use of
the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation.
Similarly, one comes across names of chapters in traditions which describe
the time when the Prophet was still alive, namely the very long chapters
and "al-Fatihah".
After the Death of the Prophet
After the death of the Prophet, 'Ali who, (according to a tradition
of absolute authority), was more knowledgeable of the Qur'an than any other
man retired to his house and compiled the Qur'an in one volume in the order
corresponding to its revelation. Before six months had elapsed after the
death of the Prophet, the volume was completed and carried by camel to
show to other people.
Just about a year after the death of the Prophet, the war of Yamamah
took place in which seventy of the reciters were killed and the Caliphs
conceived the idea of collecting the different chapters and verses into
one volume. They feared that should a future battle take place and the
rest of the qurra ' be killed, the whole Qur'an would disappear with them.
Thus, on the orders of the Caliph, a group of the qurra' from amongst
the companions including Zayd ibn Thabit, collected the chapters and verses
(written on tablets, bones and date palm fronds and kept in the Prophet's
house or the houses of reciters), and produced several hand-written copies
of the complete Book. They then sent copies of this compilation to all
areas of the Muslim domain.
After a time, during the rule of the third Caliph, it came to the attention
of the Caliph himself that differences and inconsistencies were appearing
in the copying down of the Qur'an; some calligraphers lacked precision
in their writing and some reciters were not accurate in their recitation.
Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration, the Caliph
ordered that five of the qurra' from amongst the companions, (one of them
being Zayd ibn Thabit who had compiled the first volume), produce other
copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the
first Caliph and which had been kept with Hafsah, the wife of the Prophet
and daughter of the second Caliph.
The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were
collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were
burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus
several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one
each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine
and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.
It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and
one to Bahran. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original
for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies
and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immun-
ity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."
The Importance Muslims Attached to the Qur'an
As we have pointed out above, the verses and chapters of the Qur'an
were in oral use amongst Muslims at the time of its first and second compilation
into one volume. They were extremely careful in preserving what they had
learnt by heart.
Moreover, a large group of companions and their followers were engaged
only in recitation and learning the Qur'an by heart. The collecting together
of the Qur'an into one volume took place under their scrutiny. They all
accepted, without objection, the volume when it was given to them and then
made copies of it.
It happened that when some men tried to record verse 34 in "Repentance,"
"And those who hoard up gold and silver" without the "and" in the 'Uthmanic
(second compilation) volume, they were prevented from doing so. The companion
Ubayy ibn Ka'b swore that if anyone left out the "and" he would fight him
with the sword.
As a result, the word "And" was recorded. One day the second Caliph,
during the time of his own caliphate, read the verse, And the first
to lead the way of the Muhajirin and Ansar and those who follow them in
goodness. [IX:100], without the word "and"; he was opposed and
forced in the end to read it with the "and".
The Qur'an that had been compiled by 'Ali was rejected by several people
when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance
and accepted the Qur'an in circulation for as long as he lived, even during
the time of his own Caliphate.
Likewise, the Imams of the Prophet's family, the successors and sons
of the Prophet, did not mention their objection to the Qur'an to the intimates
amongst their Shiah followers. They always referred to the Qur'an in common
use and in their commentaries and ordered the followers to recite it as
the people did.
Ali's silence in the matter of the difference of order between the two
volumes was in keeping with the preference of the Shiah Imams for commentary
of the Qur'an by the Qur'an; for them the order of the Medinan and Meccan
chapters has no influence on the meanings of the Qur'an; commentary of
each verse is made by comparing it to another group of verses.
Moreover the Qur'an is eternal and valid for all times and places; such
local and temporary particularities as this time, place and circumstances
of revelation can have no effect on the higher scale of meanings contained
in the Qur'an.
It is true that there are benefits to be gained by knowing certain details
of revelation; they help one to discern the development of divine wisdom,
social laws or stories of the past prophets and nations; also an understanding
of the reasons for revelation show how the call to Islam progressed during
the twenty-three years of the Prophet's mission.
We would like to make clear, however, that it was in order to preserve
the unity of the Muslims that caused the Shi'ites to be silent in this
matter.
The Qur'an is Protected from any Alteration
The transmission of the Qur'an, from the day of its revelation up to
the present day, is flawless. The chapters and verses have been in constant
use amongst Muslims and have been passed on perfectly intact from one generation
to the other. The Qur'an we know today is the same Qur'an which was revealed
to the Prophet some fourteen centuries ago.
The Qur'an does not stand in need of historical proof for its identity
or authenticity, (although history too confirms its validity). Since a
book which claims to be the actual unalterable word of God and attests
to this in its own text, does not need to resort to others to prove its
authenticity.
The clearest proof that the Qur'an we have with us today is the same
that was revealed to the Prophet and that no alteration has taken place
in its text is that very superiority which the Qur'an claimed for itself
at the time of its revelation and which still exists. The Qur'an says that
it is a book of light and guidance, a book which shows man the truth and
reality of existence; it says that it explains all things, that is, everything
necessary for man to live in accordance with his own natural character;
it says that it is the word of God and challenges man and jinn to produce
similar words; it invites them to find someone like the Prophet, who could
neither read nor write and grew up in an age Of ignorance as an orphan
without instruction; the Qur'an challenges them to find any inconsistency
in its method, Sciences, or laws, such as one might find in any ordinary
book. They obviously cannot for the superiority of the Qur'an remains after
its revelation.
Likewise, the guidance for man contained in the Qur'an is still valid;
it still expounds a complete world view which is in accord with the purest
of intellectual proofs and is the source of man's well being in this world
and in the next. By the benevolence and care shown by the Creator for His
creation in the Book, it still invites man to belief.
The Qur'an cares for the needs of man by giving him a vision of reality
based on Divine Unity. All knowledge and belief spring from this view of
reality. At no point does the Qur'an fail to explain in the most comprehensive
fashion the reality of this oneness.
It devotes much attention to explaining the behavior and transactions
expected of the individual in society and shows how correct action is that
which accords with the natural character and capability (fitrah) of man.
The Qur'an leaves the detailed description of man's behaviour to the Prophet
whose daily life was an example of how man was to apply what was contained
in the Qur'an.
Together the Book of God and the example (or Sunnah) of the Prophet
delineated an astoundingly comprehensive life-pattern for man, namely,
the way of living in tune with the reality which is Islam. The Qur'an deals
precisely with all aspects of individual and social life and, despite having
been revealed in another age, does not contain the slightest inconsistency
or in- compatibility even today. It describes a din, a comprehensive way
of life, whose programme of living is beyond the imagination of the world's
most capable lawyers and sociologists.
The miracle of the Qur'an has in it clarity and eloquence, rooted, as
it is, in the language of a nation famed for the purity and power of its
language. The Qur'an is a miraculous sun whose light shines far brighter
than the finest poetry of the time, indeed of any age. During the Islamic
conquests of the first century after Hijra, the resulting admixing of non-Arabic
words with the Arabic lessened the purity of Arabic language used in the
Qur'an causing it to disappear from the every-day speech of the people.
The Qur'an does not merely challenge man by the use of its language
hut also by the depth of its meaning. Those familiar with the Arabic language
(both prose and verse writings) are reduced to silence and astonishment
when they attempt to describe it.
The Qur'an is neither poetry nor prose but rather seems to draw qualities
from both; it is more attractive and dazzling than poetry and clearer and
more flowing than prose A single verse or phrase from the Qur'an is more
illuminating, more penetrating, and more profound than the complete speech
of most eloquent speakers.
The profundity of meaning in the Qur'an remains as miraculous as ever;
its complex structure of beliefs, morals and laws stands as proof that
the Qur'an is the word of God. Man, and in particular someone who was born
and raised in circumstances similar to those of the Prophet, could never
have created such a system; the Qur'an is a harmonious whole despite having
been revealed during twenty-three years in greatly varying circumstances.
God Himself confirms that the Qur'an has been preserved from change;
in chapter XV:9 He says, "Indeed We, even We, reveal the Reminder
and indeed We are truly its guardian," and in chapter XLI:4142
He says, ' for indeed it is an unassailable Book. Falsehood cannot
come at it from before or behind it. (It is) a revelation from the Wise
the Owner of Praise." Only a divine Book could remain preserved
for fourteen centuries in a world where the enemies of truth and of Islam
are numerous.
The Recitation, Memorization and Transmission of the Qur'an
There were a number of reciters engaged in learning and teaching the
Qur'an in Medina. Anyone learning from one of them would transmit that
individual's particular style of recitation when he transmitted it to others
as a tradition. Various ways of recitation occur. One may attribute this,
firstly, to the fact that the script used at the time was the kufic style
and had no diacritical points; each word could be read in various ways'
Secondly, most people were illiterate and, when learning the Qur'an,
had no alternative but to commit it to memory and transmit it orally. This
method continued to be used for many generations.
The Different Groups of Reciters
The first group of reciters were those companions who were engaged in
learning and teaching the Qur'an during the time of the Prophet. Among
them was a group which mastered the whole Qur'an; one of this group was
a woman by the name of Umm Waraqah bint 'Abd Allah ibn Harith.
Study was also undertaken by four of the Ansars (or helpers, that is
Medinans who became Muslim and welcomed the Muslims from Mecca). They learned
the whole Qur'an by heart but were not concerned with the ordering of the
verses and chapters; other scholars were responsible for memorisation of
the order.
Some traditions say that the position of each verse and chapter was
defined at the orders of the Prophet himself but this is generally refuted
by the rest of the traditions.
According to some later scholars, (namely al-Suyuti in his book al-Itqan,
in the chapter dealing with the qualities of the men responsible for transmission),
several of the qurra' became famous, among them 'Uthman, 'Ali, Ubayy ibn
Ka'b, Zayd ibn Thabit, 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari.
The second group of reciters were the students of the first group. They
were generally tabi'un (followers of the compan- ions of the Prophet) and
the more famous amongst them had centres of recitation and teaching in
Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Sham. The 'Uthmanic volume was used in these
five places.
In Mecca were 'Ubayd ibn 'Amir and 'Ata' ibn Abi Rabah, Ta'us, Mujahid,
'Ikrimah ibn Abi Mulaykah and others. In Medina were Ibn Musayyis, 'Urwah,
Salim, 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, Sulayman ibn Yasar, 'Ata' ibn Yasar, Mu'adh
al-Qari', 'Abd Allah ibn al-A'raj, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, Muslim ibn Jundub
and Zayd ibn Aslam.
In Kufa were 'Alqamah, al-Aswad, Masruq, 'Ubaydah, 'Amr ibn Shurahbil,
Harith ibn al-Qays, 'Amr ibn Maymun, Abu 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami, Zarr
ibn Hubaysh, 'Ubayd ibn Naflah, Sa'id ibn Jubayr, al-Nakha'i, al-Sha'bi,
Abu al-'Aliyah, Abu al-Raja' Nasr ibn al-'Asim, Yahya ibn Ya'mur, Hasan
al-Basri, Ibn Sirin, Qatadah, Mughirah ibn Abi Shihab, 'Uthman, Khallfah
ibn Said, Abu Darda'.
The third group lived during the first half of the second century after
Hijrah; it included a number of Imams famous for their Qur'anic recitation
who received this knowledge from the second group. In Mecca were 'Abd Allah
ibn Kathir (one of the seven qurra), Humayd ibn Qays al-A'raj and Muhammad
ibn Abi Muhaysin. In Medina were, Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn al-Qa'qa', Shaybah
ibn Nassah and Nafi ibn Nu'aym (one of the seven qurra).
In Kufa were Yahya ibn Waththab, 'Asim ibn Abi al-Najjud (one of the
seven qurra'), Sulayman al-A'mash, Hamzah (one of the seven qurra') and
al-Kisa'i (also one of the seven reciters). In Basra were 'Abd Allah ibn
Abi Ishaq, 'Isa ibn 'Umar, Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala' (one of the seven reciters),
'Asim al-Jahdari and Ya'qub al-Hadrami. In Sham 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amir (one
of the seven reciters), 'Atiyah ibn Qays al-Kalla'i, Ismail ibn 'Abd Allah
ibn Muhajir, Yahya ibn Harith and Shurayh ibn Yazid al-Hadrami.
The fourth group consisted of the students of the third group, like
Ibn 'Ayyash, Hafs and Khalaf and many of the most famous may be classed
in the next section.
The fifth group comprised those concerned with academic research and
writing including Abu 'Ubayd Qasim ibn Salam, Ahmad ibn Jubayr al-Kufi
and Isma'il ibn Ishaq al-Malih from the companions of Qalun al-Rawi. Included
also are Abu Ja'far ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Mujahid. The field of researeh
was widened after them by men like al- Dani and al-Shatibi who wrote a
great number of books on poetry.
The Seven Reciters
Seven members of the third group achieved considerable celebrity; they
became a focus of learning for others. Each of the reciters appointed two
narrators who each propagated a particular style of recitation. The following
is a list of these seven:
First Ibn al-Kathir, whose narrators were Qanbal and al-Bazzi, with
only one intermediate relator in the chain from Ibn 'Abbas from the leader
of the Faithful, 'Ali. The second was Nafi' and his narrators Qalun and
Warsh. The third was 'Asim and his narrators were Abu Bakr Shu'bah ibn
al-'Ayyash and Hafs; the Qur'an recitation which is in common use among
Muslims today is according to the reading of 'Asim by a narration of Hafs.
The fourth was Hamzah and his narrators were Khalaf and Khallad. The fifth
was al-Kisa'is and his narrators were al-Dawri and Abu 'Ali al-Harith.
The sixth was Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala'; and his narrators al-Dawri and al-Susi
with one intermediate narra- tor. The seventh was Ibn 'Amir' and his narrators
were Hisham and Ibn Dhakwan with one intermediary narrator. Following the
seven famous recitations are the three recitations of Abu Ja'far, Ya'qub
and Khalaf.
The majority of Scholars recognize the seven types of recitation as
mutawatir, that is, as having been related in unbroken chains of transmissions.
One group of narrators have equated the tradition that the Qur'an was revealed
in seven harf (literally, "word" in Arabic) with the seven different recitations;
this tradition is well known amongst Muslim scholars in general but is
not recognised as being trustworthy.
Al-Zarkshi says in his book al-Burhan, "It is true that these seven
recitations from the seven reciters have come to us via unbroken chain
of transmission but their chain of trans- mission from the Prophet are
open to inspection, since the chains of transmission of the seven reciters
are all of the type of single transmission, that is, related by one single
man to another single man."
Al-Makki says in his book, "Anyone who imagines that the recitation
of such men as Nafi and 'Asim are the same seven 'harf mentioned in the
saying of the Prophet is committing a grave mistake." Moreover, the implication
of this saying is that recitations, other than these seven, are not correct;
this also is a grave mistake since early Islamic Scholars like Abu 'Ubayd
al- Qasim ibn Salam and Abu Hatim al-Sijistani, Abu Ja'far al-Tabari and
Isma'il al-Qadi have recorded several other recitations besides these seven.
At the beginning of the second century A.H. the people of Basra used
the recitation of Abu 'Amr and Ya'qub and in Kufa the recitations of Hamzah
and 'Asim. In Sham they used that of Ibn 'Amir and in Mecca that of Ibn
Kathir. In Medina that of Nafi' was used. This situation remained unchanged
until the beginning of the third century A.H. when Ibn Mujahid removed
the name of Ya'qub and put the name of al-Kisa'i in his place.
The reason why scholars paid so much attention to the seven reciters,
despite there being many others of equal or better standing, was that the
number of recitations had multiplied so cluickly that they lost interest
in learning and recording all the traditions about recitation. Thus they
decided to choose several of the recitations which complied with the orthography
of the Qur'an and which were easier to learn and record.
Thus for the five copies of the Qur'an which 'Uthman had sent to the
towns of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Sham, five reciters were chosen
from the five areas and their recitations were then used. Ibn Jubayr writes
about these five recitations from the five forms. Ibn Mujahid records a
tradition which asserts that 'Uthman sent two other copies to Yemen and
Bahrain, that the number of 'Uthman copies thus numbered seven and that
they chose seven narrators.
Since precise information about this tradition (which states that copies
were sent to Yemen and Bahrain) was not available, they added two of the
reciters of Kufa, to make up the number they had previously chosen, to
seven. This number, which corresponds with the above-mentioned saying and
affirmed that the Qur'an was revealed in seven recitations, was then used
by others who had no knowledge of the matter. They mistakenly supposed
that what was meant by the seven harf which the Prophet spoke of, was the
seven recitations. The only trustworthy recitations are those whose text
is sound and whose meaning corresponds to what is written in the Qur'an.
Al-Qurab says in his al-Shefi, "We should look for the seven recitations
amongst the qurra' not from among others." This view is neither tradition
nor sunnah but rather it originated from some of the later Scholars who
collected the seven recitations.
These seven recitations became so well known that people imagined that
other recitations should not be used. This however, has never been claimed.
The Number of Verses in the Qur'an
The enumeration and delineation of the verses date from the time of
the Prophet. In a saying the Prophet mentions ten verses from the "Family
of 'Imran," seven in the chapter "al-Fatihah" and thirty in the chapter
"The Sovereignty." There are six views concerning the total number of verses
in the Qur'an, as related by al-Dani. Some have said that the total is
6,000, some 6,204 and some 6,219. From these six estimations, two are from
the reciters of Medina and four from the other areas to which the 'Uthmanic
copies were sent, namely, Mecca, Kufa, Basra and Sham.
All these scholars support their claims by traditions reaching back
to the companions and thus not directly linked, in a chain of transmissions,
to the Prophet. Such traditions are called mawquf in the science of the
traditions.
From Medina, those who specialized in enumeration and delineation of
the verses, were Abu Ja'far Yazld ibn al-Qa'qa', Shaybah ibn Nassah, Isma'il
ibn Ja'far ibn Abi Kathir al-Ansari, Ibn Kathir, Mujahid, Ibn 'Abbas, Ubayy
ibn Ka'b, Hamzah, al-Kisa'i, Khalaf, Ibn Abi Layla, Abu 'Abd al-Rahman
al-Sulaml, 'Ali, 'Asim ibn al-'Ajjaj al-Jahdari, Ibn Dhakwan, Hisham ibn
'Ammar.
The reason for the different opinions concerning the total number of
verses is related to the method of delineation and separation of the verses
and letters.
The Names of the Chapters
The division of the Qur'an into chapters, like its division into verses,
is mentioned in the Qur'an itself. In several places God uses the actual
words surah and ayet. In (XXIV:I) He says "(Here is) a surah which
We have revealed," in "Repentance", verse 86, "And when a
surah is revealed, " in "The Cow" verse 23, "Then produce
a surah like it ... " and other similar verses.
The name of the chapter is sometimes derived from a name or form occurring
in the chapter or from a subject treated by the chapter; for example "The
Cow", "The Family of "Imran", "The Night Journey" and "The Unity". We may
note here that in the old Qur'ans it is usual to observe the following
at the beginning of each chapter: "The surah in which the Cow is mentioned"
or "the surah in which the family of Imran is mentioned. " Sometimes the
chapter becomes known by its first phrase; take for example, the chapter
"Read in the name of your Lord" (or "the Clot") or the chapter, "Truly
we revealed it" (The Night of Power) or the chapter "Those who disbelieve"
(also called "The Clear Proof").
Sometimes the chapter becomes known by a certain position or quality
it possesses; thus the chapter "The Opening of the Book" or "The Mother
of the Book" or "The Seven Oft-repeated verses" (all describing the first
chapter, or the "al-Fatihah"). The chapter "The Unity" is also called by
the name "al-Ikhlas" (meaning that it describes the absolute unity of God)
or by the name "Nisbat al-Rabb" (meaning the chapter which describes the
divine nature of the Lord in relation to the slave). This method of naming
the chapters was also used in the early days of Islam and is attested to
by the traditions.
There are traditions, whose chains of authority reach back to the Prophet,
which assert that the name of such chapters as "The Cow", "The Family of
'Imran", "Hud" and "The Event" were used by the Prophet himself. We may
conclude from this that many of these names came into being at the time
of Prophet as a result of being in common use.
Calligraphy, Orthography and Diacritical Marks Used in the Qur'an
The first and second copies of the Qur'an were written in Kufic script
at the time of the Prophet. The very basic nature of the script, without
diacritical marks, was suitable for the reciters, relators and scholars
who had learned the Qur'an by heart, since only they knew the precise pronuniciation
of the words. Others found great difficuity if they opened the Book and
tried to read correctly.
It was for this reason that at the end of the first century after Hijrah
Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali, one of the companions of 'Ali, with the guidance
of the latter, wrote out the rules of the Arabic language and on the orders
of the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik produced a Qura'nic text with diacritical
marks. This, to a certain extent, removed the difficulty of reading the
Kufic script.
Several difficulties remained, however; the diacritical marks for vowels,
for example, were for a time only points. Instead of a fathah, a point
was placed at the beginning of the letter and, instead of kasrah, a point
below and, for a dammah, a point above at the end of a letter. This led
to ambiguity. It was not till Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi set about explaining
the maddah, i.e. the lengthening of certain words, the doubling of letters,
the diacritical marks of vowelling and the pause, that the difficulty of
reading script was finally removed.