It is obviously
impossible to compile and study all of the current definitions of culture in
one single volume. However, we can refer to distinguished dictionaries and encyclopaedias
and explore the main ones given by established scholars around the world.
Culture Described in Persian Reference Books
“Farhang (derived from farhandge),
(the Farsi equivalent for culture) refers to knowledge, intelligence, wisdom,
accountability, a Persian lexicon, Keikavus’ mother, and a branch put in soil
to be planted elsewhere. It also means a water drain.” [1]
Hossein ibn Fakhruddin Hassan
Anjui Shirazi believes “farhang to have six various meanings:
First, knowledge
“Your value has greatly
elevated the heavens, and intelligence has gained much culture from your ideas.”
(Kamal Ismail)
Second, manner
“If man acquires
culture alongside his art, will be able to manage any severity”
(Sanai)
Third, intelligence
“One who raises war at
peace-time, knows no knowledge or culture.” (Nezami)
Fourth, a book
containing Persian words and their meanings
“Fate has written his
name in its own desire on the pages of culture.” (Souzani)
Fifth, it is Keikavus’ mother's
name
Sixth, a branch buried
in soil so that it would become a shrub and be planted somewhere else.” [2]
Explaining the entry “farhang”
in his Persian encyclopaedia, the late Dehkhoda has cited many verses by
distinguished literary figures in Persian in order to further illustrate the
vast range and depth of culture in Persian literature.
The Persian Encyclopaedia
reads: “Culture shows a peoples' life style and traditions in anthropology. Its
English equivalent was first used academically in the nineteenth century by Sir
E.B. Tyler. The concept of culture has proved so useful that it is now also
used in other fields of sociology, literature and biology. Culture has been the
distinctive point between mankind and animals ever since the rising of man.
The traditions, ideas
and conditions of a group are passed on through its generations mostly by
education, not genetically. Following customs is enforced in each culture
through its own special system of rewarding and punishment. Language and other
symbolic tools do play an important role in the transfer of culture between
generations, but some kinds of behaviour can be achieved solely by experience.
Every society possesses its own specific “cultural basics” which include all
organizations necessary to man, e.g. social organizations, religion, political
organizations, economic organizations, and material culture (tools, devices,
weapons, clothing, etc.). Sophisticated societies are distinguished from “primitive”
ones in the complexity of their cultural bases. However, these two terms must
always be considered relatively.
Basically, each human
community has a definite culture, but in complex societies, secondary cultures
can also branch out of its national, social and religious conditions. On the
other hand, peaceful or even hostile cultural contact can lead to common
cultures acceptable by various nations -based on the fact that co-culturalism
can exist and each side may adopt the other's traditions. The characteristics
of a culture may be spread directly or indirectly among its groups. Such a
process is called diffusion.
A cultural area is a
land where some features of a culture are visible. Various schools of thought
have emerged in anthropology attempting to account for how cultures work,
develop and spread, but all agree on a vast evolutionary process throughout the
history of man, especially in technical and economic domains. However, the
evolution has not taken place at the same rate for all nations, and is still
incomplete in many of them, although at times co-culturalism can integrate
several steps into one.
In the first phase,
food-hunting, small groups of nomadic hunters, fishermen and fruit pickers move
from one place to another in search of food. They live temporarily in caves or
other shelters, as in the lower and middle Stone Age.
The next phase is
producing food, in which man has learned how to tame animals and use plants. He
lives in small settlements, like the upper Stone Age.
After that, civil life
began, evidence of which can be found in great ancient civilizations.
Categorizing a
contemporary culture should not be done solely on the basis of its technical or
industrial progress. For example, today's food-hunters, e.g. native Australians
are not comparable with lower Stone Age hunters 25,000 years ago, because ancient
systems of relationships and religion must have been different.” [3]
We may now come to consider these points:
1. No
dictionary or encyclopaedia has provided a clear-cut, specific definition of
culture. The reason is not negligence on behalf of scholars in identifying
culture, but due to the great diversity in cultural elements and phenomena,
which prevent a fixed comprehensive definition. Neglect in achieving a complete
definition could also be due to some cultural researchers ignoring its spiritual
and supernatural meanings -an ignorance which has unfortunately infected some
people.
2. “Culture has
been the point of distinction between man and other animal species.”
[4]
If we are to take into
account meritorious deeds and phenomena in our definition of culture, we would
have to search for the distinctions between man and animals before the
existence of culture in man’s fatalistic life, for some scholars consider
meritorious phenomena and deeds prior to his compulsory affairs in life, e.g.
thinking about preparing a settlement, developing legal relationships among a
society, social management, etc.
3. “In all, all
anthropologists approve of a step-by-step evolutionary process in the history
of mankind, particularly in technical and economic areas.”
[5]
A few points must be
considered concerning the above statement:
a. Since
freedom of will is equal to authority in the definition of evolution
-particularly value evolution -the technical and economic aspect brought up by
compulsory life affairs therefore cannot be included in the concept of culture,
as forced efforts to provide a home cannot be thought of as culture.
b. “The
evolutionary process throughout the history of mankind has not taken place at
the same rate all over the world, and some cultures have not completed it.”
[6]
This is an absolutely
correct fact, also applicable to scientific and technological progress made by
civilizations; in other words, no theory or school of thought is able to prove
these events advancing in a direct, orderly fashion.
Anyone aware of the
development of science and civilizations admits that the factors causing their
existence have not only been irregular, but totally unpredictable.
c. “Sometimes
co-culturalism can integrate a few of the phases in the process. In the first
step, food seeking, small groups of nomadic hunters, fishermen and fruit
pickers move form one place to another in search of food.”
[7]
Here we can see
phenomena concerning culture and its mutation -which, however, due to their fatalistic
nature - cannot be included in the evolutionary concept of culture.
Culture in Arabic
Reference Books
The Arabic equivalent
for culture is the word al-thiqafa which means “victory, intelligence
and skill, and also talent for science, crafts and literature.” [8]
“Its root, thaqaf,
means skilful, clever, brilliant and victorious.” [9]
To find a definition of
culture and the topics concerning it, it is best to look up al-thiqafa
and al-adab. [10]
Al-Monjad thus defines al-adab:
“An adib is a person familiar with literature. Its plural form is oda'ba.
An adib is well-trained in lexical and literary subjects, and possesses
great culture. Adab means science and knowledge as a whole or a
particular field. It also means what a person or object morally deserves, e.g.
how one should behave in a classroom, or as a judge, etc. [11]
In the following verses
also, adab refers to culture, and conveys knowledge and demonstration of
fine morals according to appropriate principles achieved through conditions in
one's lifetime.
“Acquire knowledge and
culture, no matter what family you may have been raised.. Culture will make you
independent of any relation.
Truly, a free man is one
who can claim, “This is who I am, not am so and so’s son. [12]
Culture in French
Reference Books
Deriving from the Latin
word cultura, it means fertilizing (soil), production, or planting.
Culture also has several figurative meanings:
1. Enhancing
mental strength, e.g. mental culture.
2. One's whole
acquired knowledge, for example general culture, literary culture,
philosophical culture, classic culture and massed culture
[13] which spread by
means of mass media.
3. A series of
activities based on various socio-historical guidelines, and also structures
pertaining to a specific behaviour or performance caused by the education of a
particular social group; for instance, a special culture in the society that
relates that to Western culture.
4. Culture in
French has also been referred to the physique; for example, in ancient texts, culture
physique means physical education and culturalism refers to gymnastics.
[14]
Another reference book
reads, “In the fifteenth century, culture derived from the Latin word cultura,
which means fertilizing; likewise, cultiver, meaning planting and
cultivating was used in the twelfth century.” [15]
The Rober Encyclopedia
has thus defined culture:
“All of the knowledge
that provides mankind with the power to criticize and the taste for judgment.”
It then asks the reader
to refer to words such as knowledge, education, training, and science, adding
that.
“Culture is what remains
in man's mind when all else is forgotten. Adjectives like vast, strong and high
hove been used to describe it.”
Two points should be
considered about the definition of culture in French reference books.
1. A careful
study of the above definitions shows that the majority of the meanings provided
are based on virtual facts which remain unchanged even if the objects or
persons applicable to them do, unless the whole nature of mankind undergoes
complete metamorphosis and becomes a helpless thing like animals or objects or
parts of machinery. However, literary and philosophical culture will be
unaffected, for their bases are truly unchangeable.
It is impossible to
change the truly original facts shown to the French by Victor Hugo in Les
Miserables Even Sartre and his like, with all their novel
phrases and terms tending to influence the simple-minded, failed to eliminate
Victor Hugo's Les Miserables from the culture of mankind.
Likewise, the dogmatic writers of our own era could not eliminate the role of Mowlavi's
Mathnavi in great human culture; all they achieved was
brainwashing the simple-minded with their contradicting jargon.
They felt that they were
fulfilling their own selfishness, which was a grave mistake itself; selfishness
is an insatiable flame that only quenches when it has burned itself out, no
matter how many others it also victimizes in the process.
2 .
Categorizing the meaning of culture into the real and the figurative leads to
three possibilities: first, some meanings may be archaic, e.g. agriculture and
cultivation of the soil, which is the Latin meaning for culture. Some other
meanings are frequently used regardless of their older ones. The second
possibility is that culture initially meant agriculture, but through gradual
use in texts of high moral values, was transformed to a new meaning. Third, the
old meaning of culture, i.e. cultivating and using a potential, is an
unchangeably comprehensive reality applicable to various things, e.g. the soil,
trees, animals and human beings.
Therefore, metaphor
interpretations in this case cannot have a definite, evidential reason. We also
must keep in mind that if a word changes in meaning, its original meaning,
conveying definite true fact(s) is not necessarily omitted.
Culture in View of
German Reference Books
The Duden Dictionary
thus defines culture:
All of the aspects of
mental or artistic life;
The fine aspect of life;
Raising bacteria and
other living matter on a platform made of food;
Cultivating agricultural
soil;
A new species of organic
life.
Another reference,
defining culture as all aspects of a nation's lifestyle, lists them as:
a) Human activities in
order to fulfil man -and his society's basic requirements, such as food,
clothing, shelter, health care and environmental protection.
b) Providing the means
needed for all human activities such as science, industry, construction,
organizations, etc
c) Efforts have been
made ever since mankind inhabited the earth and culture arose with them towards
providing human character with originality, finesse and form, limiting inferior
human desires and transforming them into highly elevated needs.
The first significant
point about the above definition is that such encyclopaedias, having mentioned
the highest facts of value defining culture -such as giving form, originality
and delicacy to man's character and transforming his mediocre desires into high
moral needs -state that “culture began when mankind arose on earth.” In other
words, the facts described as meaning(s) of culture are unchangeable, and
cannot be contaminated by the new worthless meanings added to culture nowadays,
considering “what man's talents show” and “what his values represent.”
Culture in the Encyclopaedia
Americana
“Culture, a vast
concept, has been used by sociological and anthropological experts. Its other
meanings refer to educated persons, i.e. those who are well-composed and are
familiar with culture and the fine arts of life.
Specialized discussions
on culture arose in anthropological texts of the mid-nineteenth century. Sir Edward
Burnett Tyler, the English anthropologist, used the term “culture” to represent
a developed series of ideas and what arises out of historical experiences. In
1910, American anthropologists used culture to show the specific
characteristics of peoples in societies. In the 1930s, Ruth Benedict described
culture as those patterns of thought and action that makes one distinct among
others.
The word “culture” is of
much significance to sociological experts, for it provides the simplest concept
for expressing the behaviour and history of mankind. For instance, compared to
the term “society” -which, by definition, refers to an organized group
dependent upon each, other who coexists inside a system in order to continue
their production and life -culture has vaster applications. Culture shows the behavioural
content of the society. The point here is: Why has culture found so many various
definitions?
The reason is that
culture does not consist of a single, homogeneous topic or refer to an
individual. It covers many elements, including ideas, emotions, values, ends, behaviours,
tendencies and experiences.”
The Evolution of Culture
Studying the process of
evolution in the history of culture, we come to three significant points:
first, culture can form the distinction between human characteristics and
animal norms. Secondly, the observed behavioural pattern is due to the outcomes
of man's cause-and-effect physical development. Thirdly, population growth and
the cultivation of man's surroundings have led to cultural manners focusing on
symbols and language, in turn resulting in a vast treasure of thoughts and
ideas throughout history. Considering it through a vaster point of view, we may
realize that culture is not the fulfilment of one of man's needs, but a
manner-based phenomenon aiming to provide magnificent virtues of life to
creatures potentially possessing it.
Man, having the
capability to build tools and use them for various purposes, can obviously
think of different subjects, interrelate and organize his thoughts and develop
a new idea. It is also possible to pass on the findings of one generation to
the next through transcription and records. No other living creature has such
abilities. Culture found its true identity through the development of such
commitments.
Culture: A Lifestyle
Cultural variables are
based upon man's creativity and talent for imagination. Human beings are able
to conceive any manner of behaviour or meaning of human life. However, there
are limits to practical and economic life that restrict the process of
developing and establishing variable forms of concepts and social life. The
economic and materialistic aspects of man's life have, in various stages,
become his ability to transform his natural surroundings into higher comfort
and more property. Although the artistic, research and philosophical aspects of
culture have also developed, we are not sure if they have done so in certain
stages. All in all, absolute diversity in cultures on earth seems to be fading
away. The increase in Western, industrialized lifestyles spreading around the
world has influenced many unique distinctions at the cost of replacing them
with industrial civil patterns.
Historians and
anthropologists believe that cultural diversity must have reached its peak
during the 14th and 15th centuries; i.e. before Europeans began to infiltrate
into the lifestyles of other nations.
Cultural Elements
Analyzing cultures
requires certain concepts. First, we can categorize cultural elements according
to quantity and basic principles. However, using specific terms will lead to
the same series and usages. Apart from classifying the constituents of culture,
other concepts are also necessary for research and utilization of culture.
Here, we are faced with two significant ideas: concepts and actions.
Each cultural element
(showing ideas on behavioural patterns, or objectives) includes all interpretations
or symbols of the mental reactions of those facing the element.
The usage of a cultural
element is determined by its researcher, not an individual caused by the
culture. Sociologists have also categorized culture into two schools of thought
which are to fulfil man's mental needs.
Cultural Manner
Pattern-based manners
can also be defined in culture using a specific method; in other words, culture
can be used to define the way to do certain things in society.
Therefore, “cultural
subgroups” convey certain methods for some of the actions in specific parts of
the society. Thus, Afro-Americans in the United States have lifestyles very
different from others, although the all live in one country. Culture used in behavioural
manners is mostly applied to solve problems.
There are several points
to consider here:
1 . “Its
(culture's) secondary concepts symbolizes educated, well-cultured people.” It
is incorrect to call this a secondary concept, for any individual who possesses
the virtual characteristics called culture can be considered a cultural person,
as we would regard anyone that has the qualities and manners of civilization
civilized. The concept and term “civilization” is not a sideline concept for
civilized man, and so neither is culture.
2. The text,
unfortunately, does not mention the time-honoured originality of cultural
phenomena such as science, education, moral virtues, and art.
3. “All in all,
anthropologists agree on the fact that culture, unlike instinctive or
hereditary patterns, consists of behavioural learning methods and ways to adopt
them.”
Since cultural elements
and activities concern the appropriate values of man’s life, we must point out
that the intrinsic culture-seeking potentials in humans are virtual, and
activating them calls for need and conscious effort. For example, the potential
need for acquiring science, art and moral virtues exists in humans regardless
of time or geographical issues, but using it in reality requires education and
practical admittance.
4. A
considerable point in the Encyclopaedia Americana is, “The term 'culture' is of
high importance to sociologists, for it provides the simplest concepts needed
to express human behaviour and history. For instance, compared to the term “society”
-which, by definition, refers to an organized group dependant upon each other
coexisting inside a system in order to continue their production in life
-culture has vaster applications. Culture shows the behavioural content of the
society.”
It is true that culture is
highly important, but we must note that its importance is not due to the fact
that it provides the simplest concept expressing the history and behaviour of
mankind, for the simplicity of a mass abstract noun, such as law, pleasure,
sorrow, generosity or reality cannot possibly lead to its comprehensive explanation.
Therefore, encyclopaedias and dictionaries have begun research to find the
complete truth about culture -and have so far led to around 164 definitions of it-likewise;
much effect has been put into research on the concept of law. [16]
This is the best reason
for the complexity in the definitions of culture. The fact stated by the encyclopaedia,
“Why has culture found some many various definitions? The reason is that
culture is a homogeneous topic and does not pertain to one individual alone; it
covers a great many elements of high diversity, such as ideas, emotions,
values, intentions, actions, tendencies and experiences,” needs more accurate
consideration, for it is true that the various definitions of culture are not
homogeneous. This best proves that finding a comprehensive commonality among
the existing 164 definition has not been what all the dictionaries and encyclopaedias
have been struggling for. Considering the diversity among human souls, it would
be extremely hard to do so, even in case of the examples we have mentioned
(emotions, values, goals, actions, tendencies and experiences).
5. The theory
that “Culture shows the behavioural content of the society,” depicts the
resulting outcome, of culture, not the facts facing it.
In other words, the
theory believes that the culture of a society lies in the behavioural aspects
of its inhabitants; however. it does not mention the intrinsic factors of
culture, i.e. moral virtues and aesthetic values Considering the principle that
“no effect can totally reveal its cause,” our objection is quite justified. For
instance, much effort is made nowadays to advertise a culture like goods all over
the world. Is the reason behind the aesthetic efforts truly serving mankind, or
to increase consumer demands? Those who regard culture a purely behavioural subject
should have a convincing explanation ready for such problems.
6. The Encyclopaedia
Americana states three points about the evolution of culture:
First : “Culture is
exclusive to humans, not all living beings.”
This point, as far as
our knowledge of biology is concerned, seems to be totally accurate.
Second : “Such behaviour
is a result of cause and Effect outcomes in human; physical development.”
This point calls for a
more scientific analysis; if “human physical development” means that a
significant extent of cultural effects appear as intrinsic outcomes in the body
and its development (such as mental, emotional, etc effects), it is quite
reasonable; however, if this means limiting cultural effects in the physique,
it would not be acceptable, since human spiritual evolution by means of
internal factors such as religion, accountability, morals, love and
humanitarianism proves highly more fruitful than depicting physically human
cultural development.
Thirdly: the fact that
“Population growth and the consumption of natural resources, have caused
cultural norms to result in a treasure of ideas and approaches throughout
history, based on symbols and language,” can also be accepted, except a short
point of interpretation that is necessary about “cultural norms.” Since there
is no comprehensive definition of culture in such texts, “cultural norms”
remain unexplained.
7. The text
reads, “Considering the vastness of culture, it is not what primitive men
invented owing to their needs; culture is a manner-based phenomenon tending to
supply beings with the great moral life they potentially had.”
This theory calls for
more careful attention, for mutual coexistence between men and the serious
cooperation and harmony it demanded, was undoubtedly essential; in other words,
the gradual necessity of force balance and sacrificing endless personal desires
-which caused destructive disturbance -led man to accepting limited desires in
order to make mutual coexistence feasible This was the beginning of co-
existential culture, which was established by men in completely free will, not
by force. The text then states, “Man, who is able to build tools, and use them
in different jobs, can definitely also think of various ideas, interrelate
them, and come up with new ones.” Obviously, as the need for physical tools
existed, human spiritual life also needed the most basic cultural factors.
Let us consider the
following statements in order to further elaborate on our point:
“Delicate philosophical
ideas and elevated religious beliefs are generally intertwined in legends, like
an ore containing both coal and gold. Unless mythological analyses separate
myth from ideological units, it would be impossible to explore the treasures of
human thought buried in legends.
Regardless of the
entertaining lullaby-like aspect of myths and legends, in fact, it is the
existence of such highly original thought supplies unconsciously lying in
various contexts that makes studying mythology inevitable for researchers of
the history of the development of philosophical schools of thought,
anthropologists, sociologists, theologists, idealists, scholars of humanities
and literature, and those who aim for awaking the conscience of mankind.
One of the best ways to
discover the basic origins of legends is definitely compiling an alphabetical
glossary of the main terms and concepts, and foreign legends.” [17]
Distinguished historians
also agree on this:
“It is not logical that
arts and supernatural facts such as man's desire for beauty, truth, the good-
generally, the “ideal” -are totally separate from the physical needs he fulfils
in order to stay alive. The reason is that we believe the best way to a
successful life is to feel that human life is a meritorious truth.
Some experts have come
to believe that primitive men struggling with their surroundings, either found
no chance to discover their spiritual truth, or felt no desire for the internal
tendencies towards eternal facts and supernatural discoveries. However,
scholars who know human nature correctly believe that primitive men were not
obsessed with the practical aspects of life like their predecessors are
nowadays, and even had spiritual affairs, and used their emotions to colour the
objects around him, to look beyond their natural appearance and realize their
supernatural meanings. Thus, the emotional values lying in objects became more
significant than their natural features. If we consider carefully the life of
ancient Australians in the vast plains -usually thought of as the poorest of
people due to high violence and social maladjustment -we would discover from
the mysteries in their lifestyle, that even every cane or stone they used contained
historical or traditional characteristics. Therefore, canes and stones used in
ancient eras were related to secrets in the human surroundings of that time
that are not conceivable now. However, man did consider himself the happiest
creature on earth.
In brief, since the
earliest times, men have been both physical and spiritual; both realistic and
idealistically perfectionist.” [18]
8 . The text
says, “...culture is a part of human creativity and imagination as a manner of
life -the basis for cultural variables. Man can conceive almost any behavioural
state or interpretation of human life. There are, of course, some obstacles on
the way to establish stable forms of social and life variables, due to
biological and economic realities. The economic and materialistic aspects of
human life have apparently in the course of time turned into the transform of
his natural environment into greater wealth and luxury. Aspects of culture such
as arts, research and philosophy have developed in some periods, but their
continuity is doubted. All in alt, cultures of the world are losing their
absolute diversity .As modern industrial lifestyles spread throughout the world;
much rare cultural diversity have been sacrificed to make way for industrial
civil life. Anthropologists and historians believe cultural variety to have
been at its peak during the 14th and 15th centuries -shortly before European
began to infiltrate the lifestyles of other countries.”
There some points in the
above statements that require further study and criticism:
a) The
statement, “Cultural variables are based on creativity and imagination” is
generally correct and acceptable, but the point is that the cultural constants
inside humans need to be discovered and distinguished from variable cultural
examples; the above statement not only ignores this point, but even makes it
more mysterious later on in the passage: “All in all, the cultures on earth are
apparently losing their diversity.”
b) The text
reads, “Man can conceive almost any behavioural state or interpretation of
human life.”
The above sentence is
somewhat ambiguous, for if the physical outcomes of human behaviour are meant,
they are obviously noticeable through studying ideas and senses by means of
behavioural research. And if the focus is upon the total identity and internal
and external results and reasons for human behaviour -as most scholars around
the world have admitted, the number of human faculties and capabilities that
still remain unknown far exceed his known abilities; such a general statement
would require revision. This is also applicable to the next phrase-
“interpretation of human life,” for our knowledge of the true nature and
factors of the existence of living beings is extremely meagre, so our
interpretation of life would be highly limited and superficial. Let us consider
the theory proposed by a distinguished Russian biologist:
"Every object in
the world can be thought of as both living and lifeless. Accepting such an
approach makes such questions like "What is life? What objects can be
considered alive, and which cannot? How did life arise?” meaningless. As
we know, the definition of "life" is still struggling in dispute, and
many scholars have failed to achieve it.” [19]
After comprehensive
research on life and its development, he adds:
“It is only by means of
such an evolutionary approach that we can not only discover what goes on in the
bodies of living beings, but also provide answers to the seven million “whys”
we confront on our path to discovering the true essence of
life”
[20]
However, since
discovering why the phenomenon “life” has progressed so evolutionarily is as
bard as the other discoveries about life, we must say that discovering the true
essence of life in every object, makes us face seven million “whys” plus one.
c) It then
comes to the conclusion that:
“However, the diversity
among cultures on earth is apparently fading away with industrial Western
lifestyles spreading out throughout the world; some rare diversities have
disappeared to make way for industrial civil life.”
The encyclopaedia
unfortunately refuses to mention any of the causes or positive negative
outcomes of its predictions.
We must first address
the problem whether cultural diversity on earth is deteriorating by itself, or
by fate, or powerful dictators striving to strip man of any freedom, dignity or
the life he deserves?
We then face the
question whether industrial societies spreading throughout the world will
destroy only the rare differences or influence all cultural distinctions and
therefore also abolish the identity of culture itself?
The first statement, “The
diversity of cultures on earth will gradually fade away”, implies that an identity
named culture will not be able to withstand Western industrial lifestyles, which
is likelier than other possibilities. If so, there would be no creature called “man”
on earth any longer, and no sign of his great potentials, abilities, ideals and
beauty either. In other words, if Western industry dominates the world, we
would face a clock work of machinery instead of man or humanity. If such a
vision embraces reality, and man loses his life, culture, ideologies and
ideals, the motive for living would either remain or be destroyed; if the
latter proves true, the world would turn into a huge industrial factory, which
may continue functioning until its resources run out, but will eventually
destruct; that is, of course, if the greedy dictators allow life to last so
long.
On the other hand, if
the motive for life survives, it will overflow time and time again, bring
industry under man's control and prevent life from being sacrificed by ignorant
dictators and anti-moralist gluttons for power. In other words, when culture
vanishes from the earth -the background for the evolution of man's life -it
would definitely mean the end of life.
9. The encyclopaedia
does not go into explaining definitions, classifications, significance, changes
or transfer in “cultural elements”, so we cannot make any comments on this
matter.
10. The encyclopaedia
presents a definition of culture in order to elaborate cultural styles, but
does not explain the nature or fundamentals of culture. If what the author(s)
have tried to convey is merely that “culture can by applied to certain social
procedures”, their concept of culture is not at all clear.
After our study and
criticism of the treatise on culture presented in the encyclopaedia, we may
undoubtedly claim that since the main issue here is mankind, it is impossible
to achieve any acceptably true facts about the highest of human concepts -such
as culture, just to name one -which all nations, even the most industrially
sophisticated, may agree upon unless we all come to an agreement on the
identity and characteristics of man.
Culture Seen by the
International Grolier Encyclopaedia
“In biology, culture
refers to a group of living cells or organisms grown artificially, such as
several kinds of micro organisms like bacteria, yeast and fungus growing and
reproducing, in a medium. The word 'culture' has two main applications:
1 . It refers
to any product of a great civilization, such as art, literature or philosophy;
therefore, it could colloquially refer to highly educated persons.
2.
Anthropologists use the term 'culture' to distinguish man's history and life. For
instance, the creation of ideas, thoughts, habits and objects leading to man's
ever-complicating coexistence with his surroundings.
In this book, we shall
deal with the second meaning of culture, which has academic and historical
usages. The latter meaning of culture leads to three major domains:
a. culture as
an evolutionary concept,
b . culture as
a descriptive concept,
c. culture as a
lifestyle or human behaviour .
The development of the
concept of culture also depends on the above categorization. At first
evolutional research (such as Darwin's studies on biological evolution)
appears. Then we come to descriptive treatises on culture, coinciding with the
early 20th century developments in research on peoples and cultures. Finally,
various cultural forms and changes in human behaviour are to be studied.
As an evolutionary
concept, culture indicates those characteristics that distinguish man from
other animals; characteristics that have evolved through million of years since
life arose on earth. The fossils found from the Ice Age made by humans or
humanlike creatures, each provide a history. Wherever there is a sign of
thought or conscious human activity in order to control or respond to his
surroundings, there is also culture.
Such evidence, in the
shape of stone tools at least 700,000 years old, alongside Autralopithecus
fossils have been found in south Africa.” [21]
Culture in the World Book Encyclopaedia
“Culture is a term that
sociologists apply to all patterns of life. Colloquially, culture means
activities like arts, literature or music, but sociologists also include in it
all thoughts, imaginations and all methods made by a group. Therefore, arts,
beliefs, habits, innovations, inventions, language, technology and traditions
are all part of culture.
Civilization is a term
similar to culture, except that civilization pertains to highly sophisticated
patterns of life, whereas culture is a way of life; whether simple or
consisting of detailed ideas, culture is made up of ways man has learned to
behave, feel or think (and not his involuntary biological functions).
Any human being works,
understands and thinks in a manner that shows his culture. In other
words, culture refers to functions man as learned to work, understand others or
express his ideas more efficiently
Some animals, guided by
their genetic instincts, follow certain patterns of behaviour. Animals
naturally inherit the methods of searching for such requirements as food or
shelter. The distinctive point between man and animals in this case is that man
is capable of experiencing alternative methods for providing his shelter and
achieves better results through his own attempts. There is no end to man's
struggle towards faster, easier and better achievements. Culture consists of a
series of experiences acquired by every part of the human body.
Sigmund
Freud, the well-known Austrian psychologist, sees culture as an artificial
instrument man uses in order to improve his physical faculties (like dentures
or glasses). He believes culture, like any other man-made tool, enables him to
do what his body could not manage. For instance, if man had arrows, he would
not require forks or hooks; if he had tame horses, he would never have to run;
and without culture, he would not be able to send astronauts to the moon and
provide them with enough technology to survive.
The human body needs oxygen, a certain temperature and many other necessities in
order to remain alive. Likewise, man-made instruments and other cultural
facilities enable him to overcome the limitations of his unpleasant
surroundings and survive.”
Then the text goes on to define primitive culture as a simple survival tool, and
quotes Sir Edward Burnett Tyler's definition of culture:
“Tyler,
the distinguished English anthropologist, defines culture as other scholars do
nowadays. In his 1971 book on primitive culture, he defines culture as:
"A series of any beliefs or ideas (general or complicated)
including science, ideologies, arts, morals, law, traditions and any other habit
or capability man may have acquired as a member of his society.”
The origin of human culture dates back to prehistoric times. Some milestones in its
process can be named as:
1. The development of tools and instruments,
2. The rise of agriculture,
3. The growth of large cities,
4. The progress in
scribing and calligraphy.” [22]
The article continues
with explanations on each of them. The World Book Encyclopedia presents five
different viewpoints in defining culture:
1. Culture as all modes of
life.
2. Culture meaning
various activities, e.g. arts, literature and music.
3. Folk culture includes
all thoughts, mental perceptions and methods for performing group actions.
Therefore, culture consists of arts, beliefs, ideologies, traditions, inventions,
innovations, languages, habits and technology.
4. Culture consists of
the modes man acquires in his behaviour, emotions and thought (except his
involuntarily biological functions).
5. Culture includes all
experiences gained by various parts of the body.
The text finally
introduces Freud, who considers culture equivalent to the most normal of tools
and absolutely natural phenomena limited to the physical aspects of man's life.
The most significant definition given in the text pertains to Tyler.
Surprisingly, the fourth
definition contradicts the fifth; the fourth definition separates man's “naturally
biological” functions from culture, whereas the fifth -particularly Freud -says
nothing about supernatural phenomena or facts.
How Does Culture Change?
All cultures are
constantly changing. Changes may happen rapidly or slowly. Since culture
consists of various factors, changes in one will also affect the others. Some
sociologists believe much social maladjustment is due to unequal changes in
different cultural components. When some parts tend to lag behind others,
cultural retardation develops. Most of the cultural retardation observed in the
history of the United States concerns ideas, traditions and mental matters.
Science and technology advances so rapidly that it often overtakes culture and
leaves it behind. Therefore, guiding the leaders of technology today -who
lucratively provide themselves with power and authority -toward more
consideration for human culture and moral virtues may prove in vain, or perhaps
cause them to become even more resistant toward it, and strengthen the advance
of technology. Therefore, it is best to address societies where the
fundamentals of human culture still exist, and hope for a day when they lead a
cultural renaissance. A point ought to be emphasized here, although we will
address the issue when we explore disharmony in cultural elements. The point is
that unfortunately, scholars currently presenting definitions and
characteristics for culture do not distinguish the stable sections of culture
from its variable parts. The unchangeable cultural elements depending on man's
fixed needs should be distinguished from the change-prone elements; however,
the two are usually integrated, which leads to errors in cultural activities
and understanding. Let us now consider the general, unchangeable principles of
culture which are not to be mistakenly mixed with its variable examples. For
example:
1. Eagerly seeking
greatness is an undefiable principle, despite the variety of its outcomes in
different people.
2. Respect, which is
reflected in human cultures in forms such as love and devotion for fellow
beings.
3. Man's intense need for a meritorious life.
4. Adjusting and
correcting the four relationships: man-himself, man-God, man-universe,
man-fellow beings.
Culture Seen by Argentine References
“Etymologically, culture
means cultivating the earth and reflects the relationship between men and the
earth, although its meaning has undergone change through time. The simplest
definition of culture describes it as a series of physical and spiritual
advantages a human community acquires in order to establish harmonious coexistence
in its national society.” Argentina's scholars, lexicographers, historians,
philosophers and even revolutionary anti-imperialist sociologists have defined
culture as mentioned above. As well as being a true fact existing outside man's
physique, culture also has mental aspects. Most intellectuals have failed to
understand the comprehensive quality of culture, for they are obsessed with
individualistic civil culture (and also affected by Imperialistic culture
infiltration), and therefore cannot realize how vast the concept of culture
really is. It goes far beyond that, in fact. This is why we are addressing
Chinese, Spanish, French and Latin American cultures.
Imperialism is
constantly influencing the masses, “democratizing” cultures by imposing its own
imperialistic culture, luring intellectuals towards its anti-revolutionary
goals, spreading huge amounts of publications and movies. By presenting
imaginary tales of big city life and imperialistic centre lifestyles, they
create a mirage of a luxurious life. They have thus estranged millions of their
own culture by spreading American patterns of life. Although America has
presented the lifestyle, Americans themselves are devoid of historical or
cultural background. In South America, native cultures were unable to resist
imperialistic propaganda, so alien cultures succeeded in separating the middle
and well-to-do classes from the country's national culture. As imperialism
falls astray now, native and alien cultures, still in constant conflict,
continue to divide the people. The first impact reflects in arts. It is not
surprising that is South American folk art (in Brazil and Mexico, for instance)
shows significantly political background. The reason is the endless folk
culture and increasing revolutionary conscience of third-world South American
artists.” [23]
We now should point out
a few things concerning the above text:
1 . The
briefest definition given here for culture is the same as the comprehensive one
presented in other well-known encyclopaedias. Since we have already treated
them, there is no need for further elaboration.
2. “As well as
being a true fact existing outside man's physique, culture also has mental
aspects.” This is absolutely correct, and we will address it later on in our
discussion entitled: “Culture is a Bi-polar Truth.”
[24]
3. “Culture is
also a historical reality.” Considering the definition of culture and its
historical effects, it is obviously a reality arisen from man's original needs.
4. “Intellectuals
are mostly unable to understand the comprehensive identity of culture.” The
reason is the great diversity among cultural elements and outcomes which
inhibit a comprehensively common concept. However, if we consider culture as a
progressive reality, we may present a definition based on the one given during
the first sections of this book, which can include all of the elements and
outcomes of culture: <
"Culture consists of the appropriate qualities or
meritorious methods for man's spiritual and physical activities, based on
logical thinking and emotions arisen from sensible evolution.”
5. The other reason mentioned why the
comprehensive identity of culture has not been understood, lies in cultural
invasion -and also due to Imperialistic cultural invasion. “We have already
mentioned that the issue currently is not cultural invasion, but deculturization,
for in order to generalize and globalize culture according to the definition
above, obviously invasion and opposition are totally unnecessary, for all of
mankind eagerly desires a culture so developed that it would guarantee their
spiritual and physical evolution.
6. “By
influencing the masses, 'democratizing' culture and imposing Imperialistic
cultures, Imperialism is luring intellectuals towards its own anti-
revolutionary goals.”
“Democratizing culture”
is equivalent to “pursuant culture”, which totally neglects the moral,
political, literary, artistic or religious development of man, for the motto of
pursuant culture can be defined as:
“What I want is
certified, only because I want it”.
7 . “By
mass-producing publications and films, they are constantly deteriorating the
minds of the masses. A mirage of a luxurious life is created through showing
fairy tales of big city life in Imperialist centres. Millions have been
infatuated by American lifestyle propaganda, and have become estranged with
their own culture.”
Such statements need no
further comment. However, those who lead the operations aimed to destroy other
cultures should have in mind that all human societies resemble a swimming pool,
if in which a small stone is thrown in its corner, waves large and small will
diffuse in all parts of the pool. The adverse results of destructing cultures
will definitely infect all human communities. Once, a father got angry with his
young son and said, “I will take you by the ear and swing you around the yard.”
When his son asked, “If you do so, father, will you swing, too?” The father
immediately let go of him. He was a highly intelligent father, for he at least
valued his own safety.
8 . “Millions
have been alienated from their culture.”
This
magnificent statement reflects its writer's deep thoughtfulness and sense. It
is clear that pioneer cultures affect human souls so profoundly that their
destruction will lead to the deterioration of man's own identity.
9. “Foreign and native cultures still divide
people into separate groups, which are constantly in conflict.”
Cultural
conflicts can damage every aspect of people's social lives.
Culture in the Encyclopaedia Britannica
“Culture
can be defined through man's behavioural characteristics, as well as other
factors affecting his behavioural development, especially culture, language,
ideologies, habits, traditions, laws, social organizations, devices,
techniques, works of art, religious rituals, ceremonies, etc. The existence and
the application of culture strangely depend on a particular human faculty,
which is commonly called the capacity for sensible or abstract thought.
However, since strong evidence of sensible thought has also beep reported in
animals, the meaning of “abstract” falls into doubt. Therefore, we had better
express man's unique capability to abstract through the term “symbolizing”.
Symbolizing includes selecting symbols to represent specific objects or events
unable to be realized through our senses.
A
good example is verbal eloquence. The sound included in the word “dog” provides
no hint of its meaning. Obviously, its meaning arises from a conventional
agreement selected by humans. Symbol selection is behaviour independent of the
physical senses.
As Edward Burnett Tyler,
the English anthropologist stated in 1871:
‘Culture consists of a
complete series of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, traditions and any
other abilities, capacities or habits acquired by man as a constituent of his society.’
According to Tyler's
definition, culture is attainable only by humans. His statements won the
approval of other anthropologists for fifty years. Advances in anthropology,
however, led to deeper studies on identity and concepts and in turn various
definitions.
In 1952, two American
anthropologists, A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn cited 164 different
definitions of culture in their work, Culture: A Critical Review of
Concepts and Definitions.
In their view -and also
as many other scholars nowadays see it -the best definition of culture consists
of an abstraction; to be more precise, abstract human behaviour .
Such concepts prove to
be either incomplete or vague. The existence of behavioural patterns
-frameworks of behaviour, whether inherited genetically or acquired socially -have
been undoubtedly proven in non human species (e.g. honeybees, ants and
termites).
The abstract concept of
culture poses first the question culture is real (for abstraction is at times
considered inconceivable); secondly, it defies the existence of culture.
Therefore, as the non biological science of mankind, culture cannot exist
without real visible phenomena, for it has been regarded as both real and
nonexistent.
Kroeber and Kluckhohn
eventually concluded that if culture is regarded as equivalent to behaviour,
its identity would bring it into the domain of psychology. Therefore, their
conclusion was that culture consists of abstractions of observable behaviours.
Now rises the question
how we would abstract wedding rituals or pottery according to Kroeber and Kluckhohn's
pattern? Such questions lead to problems they have not considered. Perhaps
Leslie A. White's solution in his 1959 work, The Concept of Culture, may
prove useful. White argues that, “The point is not whether culture is indeed a
reality or a mental concept; its scientific interpretation should anyhow be
carefully studied. Anything or any event leads to behaviour when studied in
relation to human organisms. When studied not in relation to human organisms
but to others, it becomes culture -for instance the prohibition against
marrying one's mother-in-law or stepmother consists of a series of concepts,
attitudes and actions. If they are regarded in relation to human organisms,
i.e. the organism's functions, they can be named behaviour. Therefore, if we
consider the prohibition against marrying one's mother-in-law or stepmother in
relation to social compositions, settlements, traditional segregations of man
and woman and their roles in society and upholding the good, it could be
regarded as culture.
This distinction has
been used for years; many words are considered behaviour due to their
pertaining actions. However, if words are considered in relation to each other
-studying their lexical definitions, grammatical and structural usage -they
will become part of language, and would enter not only psychology, but also
linguistics. Thus, culture is a term referring to a category of items and
events depending upon conventional symbols studied in a framework of the
supernatural content of man's life.”
Now let us consider the
points of importance presented in the Encyclopaedia Britannica:
1. “Culture can
be defined through man's behavioural characteristics, as well as other factors
affecting his behavioural development, especially culture, language,
ideologies, habits, traditions, laws, social organizations, devices,
techniques, works of art, religious rituals, ceremonies, etc.”
The problem with the
above statements is that:
a . Including
culture in its own definition does not seem to make sense, for the defining
items ought to be clearer than those which are to be defined; using an object
to elaborate itself traps us in a vicious circle.
b . Including
particular human behavioural patterns in the definition of culture is not
sufficient, for such patterns, e.g. language, belief, and habits, express only
a few of the results of culture, not culture itself: “The existence and
application of culture calls for a uniquely specific human faculty.”
Obviously, unless that
unique faculty is known, the true identity of culture would remain unsolved,
particularly since the results of cultural elements are so diverse that
sometimes it is impossible to combine them into one general concept that can be
called the identity of culture. For instance, works of art that oppose morals
or religion cannot be united to convey culture. The encyclopaedia thus
elaborates on the cultural faculty.
“Such a faculty is
commonly known as the capacity of logical or abstract thought”
It then objects to this
term, and adds, “However, there is proven evidence of logical thought in
animals, so the meaning of abstraction here is unclear.”
We must say that even if
living organisms other than man possess the faculty of logical thought, they
would be incomparable to man, for human thoughts are conscious, and definitely
use abstract principles. In nonhuman life, as far as we know, it merely moves
from the beginning steps to results; in other words, their actions aim for
providing the beginning steps, like nesting as a preliminary step towards
mating and reproduction.
However, the statement, “The
meaning of abstraction is unclear” reflects an obvious mistake about the
delicate functions of the brain. Some people think that the functions performed
by the brain and everything pertaining to the “self” can be studied by the same
methods used for physical phenomena. They ignore the fact that we will never be
able to discover the true identity of self-consciousness. However, a developed
brain is not only self-conscious, but also capable of understanding and performing
abstraction. Describing such internal functions is as hard as explaining joy,
sorrow, surprise or responsibility.
c. “Thus,
symbolizing is a more suitable term for expressing the unique capacity for
abstraction in men.”
We must remember that
symbolizing, as other words, is just a conventional term, and cannot reflect
its content. Two illustrating examples can elaborate this point in the
subsequent sentence.
2. Culture is “a
complete set of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, traditions and any other
capacities or habits acquired by man as a member of the society.”
If the above-mentioned
phenomena refer to interrelated realities affecting each other's qualities and
also quantity, their combination can express the unique reality named culture;
however, we have already seen that deriving a definition of culture is not
possible merely through determining one or several culture phenomena.
The statement, “If we
could maintain a relationship with the whole identity of culture through
identifying cultural phenomena, we would no longer need to fully comprehend the
definition of culture” is incorrect, for it is based on the false premises that
we can establish a relationship with the whole identity of culture by
identifying a few cultural phenomena; the ability to figure out the true
identity of objects merely by studying a few of its effects is a grave mistake.
In proof of it, we must say:
Man Innately Desires to
Figure out the Truth about Elevating Culture
It is proven clear to
any researcher on culture who has accomplished discoveries about it that
without culture, man would not only lose his dignity, self-respect, his
valuable “freedom” and the life he merits, but even consider them as harmful
hallucinations; as we all know, if such basics of life vanish, the only logic
remaining in man's individual or social life would be the passageways to
nihilism, power and pleasure. Obviously, if power and pleasure dominate man's
life, no necessity or meritorious value could prevail, and even their opposing
factors would also be demolished, even though they may be justified.
It is amazing that most
academic authorities on the -humanities still continue to attempt to prove the
fact that man is heading for true greatness, with such deceiving eloquence that
any simple mind believes them. Some put on such a detailed display of complex
jargon that even other scholars might be forced to assume it to be
unquestionably true. High claim for man's progressive evolution aims to
sacrifice all of the cultures and peoples around the world -who basically agree
on logical principles -to feed their technological monster. One day, the
monster might strangle its own operators to death, and eliminate any chance for
them to relive their painfully eventful story which ends in suicide.
A significant point
comes to attention here, which can also influence human life evolution: all
around the world there are hundreds of seminars, conferences, and vast studies
on man and his relationship with technology, and still, there is no indication
of a serious attempt to discover a reasonable identity of culture and its
relation to mankind. Perhaps the few honest authorities on humanities are
totally in despair about the unstoppable demise of humanity.
Therefore, let us uphold
our heart-warmingly reviving culture and introduce it to other people, and have
community leaders do their best to help the process -before it is too late.
Then, they will definitely admit that ruling over one human being who enjoys
dignity, logical freedom and the life he/she deserves, is better than ruling
over millions devoid of them, who have only been labelled “human” by history
after the Cro-Magnons.
3. “As Kroeber
and Kluckhohn and also many other currently leading scholars see it, the best
definition of culture consists of an abstraction -to be more precise, an
abstraction of human behaviour .” If the above sentences refer to a dimension
of reality, not only is it generally correct, but in fact Kroeberand Kluckhohn
have pointed out an important aspect of culture (the internally innate pole)
which is also the abstract aspect of culture. This is an absolutely correct
point, for the non-instinctive, calculated movements and accountable behaviours
observed in some animals, refers to meritorious values conveying the general
concept of culture, which is undoubtedly abstract (as is the general concept of
beauty). The regular behaviour seen in honeybees, ants and termites depends on
their unconscious instincts, not conscious merits or freedom; therefore, if Kroeber
and Kluckhohn believe the abstract definition of culture to be the best one,
they are gravely mistaken. It would be like defining beauty as “an abstract
concept”, which reveals nothing at all about the qualities or identity of
beauty.
In brief, we must note
that the general truths about culture -beauty, greatness, etc -consist of two
poles:
The first, the innately
internal pole, which includes mentally abstract concepts describing general definitions.
The other pole is observable, i.e. those behaviours and effects seen
physically.
Thus, we may put the
theory of culture being an abstract concept in the encyclopaedia in opposition
with Kroeber and Kluckhohns's viewpoints. The encyclopedia states that:
The concept of culture
as an abstraction poses first the question whether culture is real (for at
times. abstraction is considered inconceivable), and then defies it.”
The authors of the encyclopaedia
must keep in mind that defying abstract realities such as culture, beauty and
greatness could first cast doubt upon all scientific principles -which are
definitely derived from generally abstract issues and regular phenomena in the
world -and then even question the integrity of mathematical and geometrical
laws. Such a presumption could put all of human knowledge and everything man
has acquired through mental abstraction in the shadow of serious uncertainty,
or even defy them all.
4. The encyclopaedia
states that, “Therefore, as the non-biological study of mankind, culture would
be consistent both nonexistent and real, and could not remain without actual
worldly events.”
Unless interpreted
correctly, the statements above could prove unreasonable, for if we judge the
reality of objects biologically, we would have to defy all of man's
psychological activities, for they are non-biological.
It is scientifically
reasonable to accept the existence of internal, psychological and mental facts,
even though their external effects would require observable behaviour and
imagination in visible phenomena.
5 . The
statement, “Therefore, Kroeber and Kluckhohn concluded that culture is an
abstraction of observable behaviour” flaws in its sense-based deduction is that
Kroeber and Kluckhohn have neglected the distinction between the facts that “Observable
behaviour provides the basis for abstract mental realities like culture, beauty
and justice” and “Observable behaviour leads to the abstraction of culture”.
Scientific observations
and analyses on abstract facts have shown that culture, beauty, justice, etc,
are bipolar abstract facts (consisting of virtual and observable poles), and
the resulting behaviour account for the observable one. It is incorrect to
suppose that such realities arise from abstractions of observable behaviour.
6. We may
conclude from the above item that Kroeber and Kluckhohn's conditional theory -”If
culture is regarded as identical to behaviour, it would naturally become a
psychological issue” -calls for some rethinking, for bipolarity should not make
culture a domain of psychology, as is the case in beauty consisting of two
pokes (internal virtues and external virtues).
However, such issues can
be studied in terms of psychological and also scientific matters, but they do
not necessarily afflict their abstract reality.
7. The text
reads. “Perhaps Leslie A. White's suggestions presented in his 1959 work, The
Concept of Culture, may provide a solution. White reasons that it is
important to take into consideration the scientific interpretation of culture,
not whether it is a reality or just a mental concept.”
This point also needs to
be modified, for in order to fully comprehend the scientific interpretation of
culture, it is at least as important as other essential factors defining
culture to determine whether culture is a really external fact or just mental-
if not the most important, for the qualities of a mental fact highly differ
from those of physically observable ones, even if the two share a common
abstract concept. It then adds:
“Whenever objects or
events are considered in terms of their relation with human organisms, they
lead to behaviour Otherwise, i.e. when they are considered only in relation to
each other, they would by definition result in culture
“
The point rising here
is, what is meant by “objects and events” in relation to human organisms? If
they mean all- external or internal -factors and motives, the point would prove
to be true, for human organisms are obviously prone to any external or internal
influence, which lead to behaviour, whether being merely a reflex or causing
mental or bodily functions. However, if “events and objects” convey externally
physical phenomena, they would only account for a certain extent of behavioural
factors.
On the other hand, the
statement, “If studied independent of human organisms -i.e., only in relation
to each other -they would by definition result in culture,” is somewhat
unclear, for billions of the components of the universe are constantly
affecting each other, but many of such effects may not fit into culture. As we
have already seen, the primary basis of culture is the virtually internal pole
relating to human life merits such as “What it is like” and “What it should be
like”, which lead to man's aims and ideas in such issues.
8 . “Thus,
culture is a term referring to a class of objects or events depending on
conventional symbols considered as part of man's supernatural content.”
Culture as seen by
Russian Encyclopaedias “Culture is a series of social achievements consisting
of physical or mental advances used by the community, and also those cultural
traditions serving man's future progress.
In societies suffering
from struggling classes, culture inevitably becomes class-biased. The opposite
of culture is barbarity, savagery or cultureless ness. A true understanding of
culture is only feasible on the basis of socioeconomic guidelines and sequences
of social organizations brought about by defining productive forces, productional
processes, social relationships and the qualities of any given society.
Yet, culture cannot
replace these concepts, for it includes all achievements of any range -mental
or physical -altogether, whose characteristics determine historical periods for
various societies, peoples or nations.
Culture consists of
man's creative activities, and is the most significant sign of his advance
level. Culture derives from the Latin word cultura (agriculture), which
means mowing, producing and processing; it originally conveyed man's influence
on nature, determining his achievements and the factors playing a role in them.
The latter meaning was most used in the bourgeois culture era, and was seen
frequently in the works of 19th century historians, anthropologists and archeologists,
which led at that time to the term “The History of Culture.”
The concept of culture
consists of two parts, physical and mental. The physical aspect shows man's
ability against the forces of nature. Physical culture conveys man's progress
in understanding nature, the community, and also the scope of his vision and
progressive thoughts and knowledge. Tools are the most prominent symbol of
physical culture.
Mental culture consists
of social achievements in morals, arts, science and philosophy. It also
represents man's political and legal relationships and advances. Mental culture
is used to determine the extent of progress made in social, political or legal
relationships. Language, speech, thought, logic and behavioural principles make
up the phenomena of human life.” [25]
The following comments
may be presented on the above statements:
1. It is true
that culture is of high importance in man's progress, and as a principle, the
main role of culture is to be progressive.
However, what eventually
can be named pioneer culture? The question is left unanswered.
2. The
statement, “In societies suffering from class struggles, culture inevitably
becomes class-biased” is correct from a certain viewpoint, but on the other
hand also calls for reconsideration. What is meant here by “struggling”
classes? If the struggle involves positive competition instead of harmful conflicts,
culture can definitely serve the development of such a progressive society.
Also, if we were to have a systematically organized community, culture would
again prove to be dynamically progressive, and aim for the advancement of the
whole society.
3 . “The
opposite of culture can be stated as barbarity, savagery, or cultureless ness”
The important point seen
here is how meritorious culture is, despite those who regard it as social
customs and traditions. No matter how deserving and elevating social traditions
may be, we based the definition of the identity of culture (given at the
beginning of this discussion) upon its meritorious ness. Therefore, since the
highest human virtues and principles make up culture -and defying them would
defy the whole of humanity - “The opposite of culture is barbarity, savagery or
cultureless ness.”
4 . Further on,
we encounter two contradicting statements:
a. “A true understanding
of culture is only feasible on the basis of socioeconomic guidelines and
sequences of social organizations brought about by defining productive forces, productional
processes, social relationships and the qualities of any given society.”
b. “Yet, culture cannot
replace such concepts, for it includes all achievements of any range -mental or
physical- altogether”, for understanding a true fact means acquiring knowledge
of it without the influence of any presumed principles or accepted ideals.
In other words, it is
scientifically vital to strongly avoid using our physical senses (laboratory
devices, tools enhancing human senses, etc) as much as possible to discover
realities as they truly are. By gathering more experience and knowledge, we can
free ourselves from the conflicting points in our scientific domains.
Culture in Italian Encyclopaedias
“Culture is the series
of mental and social knowledge which can be acquired through vast study -though
never completely.
A cultured person aims
to develop intelligent thought in himself/ herself, feel it flowing through his
body, and use it to quench his mental desires. In fact, he tends to activate
his peers' -or even his predecessors' -thoughts, and purify their mental
processes.
The most dangerous enemy
of culture is fashion, which can demolish all cultural values. Fashion tends to
constantly substitute novelties for the old. It even destroys itself.
The history of culture
is an average of the tastes, knowledge and moral and/or religious beliefs
existing in a certain location and era.
Civilization consists of
the artistic, scientific, economical and moral life aspects dominant over a
nation, era or all of mankind.
Culture depicts
intellectual lifestyle and thought, and its reflection upon a generation or a country.
This definition obviously also conveys the concept of civilization in Italian.
Culture, derived from cultivure,
means planting, developing a farm; it also conveys all of man's mental or
acquired knowledge, especially academic levels of literature, art, music,
history, philosophy, etc.
Culture is not only a
mental issue, but also spiritual, relating various branches of knowledge (as
its spiritual aspect) to developing tastes and attitudes.
As a generalization of
the above statements, we come to the culture of a nation, era, or cultural
development and the history of culture.
In anthropology, as well
as sociology and psychology, culture is considered a human community's
organization or characteristics, including the goals, virtues, symbols, beliefs
and behavioural patterns common among most of its members.”
Let us now take a few
points helpful to our understanding of culture into further consideration:
1. “Culture is
the series of mental and social knowledge which can be acquired through vast study
-though never completely.”
Clearly, although this
definition presents some components of culture to a certain extent, the
identity of culture -the main core of the definition -remains unmentioned
nevertheless.
Two points are worth
considering:
a. It is
undeniably true that acquiring the whole of mental or social knowledge requires
vastly extensive study.
b. Such vast
studies would still prove inadequate for achieving complete mastery of culture
and its components and outcomes.
2 . “A cultured
person aims to develop intelligent thought in himself, feel it flow through his
body, and use it to quench his mental desires.”
This statement shows
man's authentic eagerness for culture. Indeed, when man selects his culture
consciously and freely, he must have found it sufficiently deserving for him to
feel it flow through his body and quench his intellectual needs with it.
Obviously, no sensible person, consciously aware of his benefits and perils,
would choose an animal or filthy quality as his culture, or become so attached
to it that it would flow through his/her veins. This is the virtual meritorious
ness a dynamically objective human culture should have. Otherwise, the
significant species known as “homo sapiens” would definitely disappear from the
face of the earth.
3 . “The most
dangerous enemy to man is fashion, which demolishes all cultural values.”
If only today's cultural
leaders would carefully and adequately consider this critical issue -the
conflict between fashionism and a dynamic, objective culture they could save
mankind from a hemlock that deviates man's spirit from following his virtues,
pulls people so deeply into consumerism that it demolishes their health,
possessions and dignity, throws their spirit into the darkness of despair and
infidelity, wandering in artificial ruins made by their greedy rulers.
As the encyclopaedia
states, “Fashion is always substituting novelties for the old”; therefore, fashionism
and dynamic, original cultures would always conflict, for if man does not use
his enormous sense of novelism in order to gradually renew his spiritual and
psychological virtues, he would undoubtedly apply it to superficial fashion
games. Cultures of dynamic originality are based upon fixed principles much
higher than changes in appearance. The encyclopaedia puts it very delicately: “Fashion
can even destroy itself.”
4 . “The
history of culture is an average of the tastes, knowledge and moral and/or
religious beliefs existing in a certain location and era.”
Provided that the above
statement is based on the permanent principles of the culture, it would
be perfectly correct: the history of the culture of a given society at a
certain point of time and location can be expressed by the average of tastes,
knowledge or moral and/or religious beliefs based on permanent human
principles, not the average of variable, baseless outcomes of alien cultures
spreading from one society to another. If it is not stated it the basis of
fixed principles, however, it would prove prone to defiance.
5 . “Culture
includes intellectual lifestyle and thought, and its reflection upon a
generation or a country. This definition obviously also conveys the concept of
civilization in Italian.”
As an indication of one
of the aspects of culture, this statement is correct. But further elaboration
on “intellectual thought and its reflection upon a generation or a country”,
especially “intellectual thought”, may reveal one of the most important
constituents of the definition of culture.
6 . “Culture is
not only a mental issue, but also spiritual, relating various branches of
knowledge (as its spiritual aspect) to developing tastes and attitudes. As a
generalization we come to the culture of a nation, era, or cultural development
and the history of culture.”
These valuable
statements prove that the identity of culture does not only reflect the thought
of a community; likewise, the thoughts of the members of the society cannot
represent their culture either. The spiritual aspect of culture, i.e. man's
evolutional development towards high moral virtues, consists an important part
of culture, and would be worthless without it.
Culture as Seen by Greek
Reference Books
“Of Latin origin, cultur
means agriculture. In the last two decades, however, ideological and social
class changes turned it in Greek into cultura, which means agriculture,
and also physical and mental development through education, evolution, culture,
and intellectual training.
Greek dictionaries
provide agriculture, education, training, culture and civilization as its
synonyms. Occasionally, when one is labelled as culture yaris,
it humorously means a person pretending to be interested in cultural
matters in order to show off before others.
In Greek, culture is
seldom consisted of a series of meanings; for Greek is such a vastly rich
language that there is a specific term for each object or concept; therefore,
the five synonyms provided for culture are easily applicable to their proper
cases, each of which convey a certain aspect of culture.”
Here are the three most
significant points arising from the definition of culture in the Greek Encyclopaedia.
a) Its cultural
elements are mostly of evolutional value, and the world “development” is
stated.
b) It
introduces “intellectual training” as one of the concerned parts. Obviously,
“intellectual” cannot be limited to mere thought, but must include mental
activities based on moral virtues.
c) Culture
conveys variety: "In Greek, culture is seldom consisted of a series
of meanings, for Greek is such a vastly rich language that there is a specific
term for each object or concept.”
We will discuss this
significant point further later on.
Culture as Seen in
Spanish Encyclopaedias
The Royal Spanish
Academy's Dictionary metaphorically describes culture as “the result of
developing human knowledge and perfecting it through practice.”
Space Calpe,
the
best-known Spanish encyclopaedia available, defines culture as being “the
mental or physical developmental state of a nation or peoples.”
The encyclopaedia
considers illustration (illustracon) and civilization as
synonyms for culture. Salvat presents a philosophical definition of
culture:
“The series of definite
productions of humans as creative beings able to change themselves as well as
their surroundings.”
The
definition provided in the Royal Spanish Academy Dictionary is more likely real
than metaphorical, considering its frequent usage and approval by the Space Calpe.
Perhaps this mistake (which also occurs in the French encyclopaedia) lies
in the lack of distinction between a word's actual meanings at a certain time
with those other points of time, which is caused by the expansion of the depth
of meanings of a word as time goes on.
Considering the Latin
origin of the word -meaning agriculture, fertilizing, and raising plants and
living beings - the subsequent meanings of culture arisen in Eastern countries
may also be associated with the original ones as its examples, results, or even
real meanings -education, fertilizing human knowledge, or purifying it through
practice. If there were nothing in common between its new meaning – “the mental
or physical developmental state of a nation or peoples” -and ‘civilization’ and
its old ones, even if the older meanings were contradicted, they would still
remain real. In other words, culture would be a verbal portmanteau among various
realities.
The second statement, “The
series of definite makings of humans as creative beings able to affect
themselves and their surroundings” also depicts the element of man's
innovativeness and his capability to change his environment.
Culture as Seen by
Chinese Encyclopaedias
The Sea of Words thus
defines culture: “All of the physical of spiritual wealth created by man
throughout social history consists culture. Culture is a social phenomenon, and
each society possesses a culture appropriate to its own social physical
development. As an ideology, culture represents the politics and economy of the
society, which greatly affect its socioeconomic survival. In class-orientated
societies, culture also has class-biased qualities.
Proletariat culture,
critical of man's historical achievements, makes use of all the experience
gained from class struggles, productional struggles and academic experiments
and develops.”
The above definition
brings us to several points:
1 . The
statement, “All of the physical and spiritual wealth created by man throughout social
history makes up culture” implies that The Sea of Words considers all of
these treasures as culture; in other words, each of these components cannot
individually be culture. Unless, of course, supposing the components of the definitions
were not related, and the omission of any of them would not demolish culture.
Therefore, it is obvious that we literally mean “all”, and culture includes
each and every one of its components.
2 . In order to
define the identity of culture by using a definition, the words forming the
definition should be clearer than culture (the “defined”); yet, culture
nowadays is more easily understood than words like
“all of the physical and
mental wealth”, etc. by people.
3 . How can
physical wealth possibly be included in the meaning of culture?
4. “Culture is a historical phenomena.” This is
absolutely correct, provided that we accept that culture arises, continues and
evolves throughout history, rather than being fatalistically brought about by
it, for our definition of culture was based upon “qualities” and ways of a
meritorious, sensible life. Therefore, since fatalistic phenomena totally
ignore values and merits, culture cannot depend on fatalistic historical
factors.
5. “Each
society possesses a culture appropriate to its own social physical development.”
The following point
shows that this statement calls for revision.
The
fact- that each society has an appropriate culture of its own is not applicable
to all cultural phenomena or elements, for throughout time and even today,
human societies share a series of cultural commonalities like literary culture,
artistic culture, moral culture and ideological culture; although each of these
concepts differ characteristically in aspects such as literature, arts, morals
and ideology, cultural diffusion from one of these aspects to another in one
society or among several societies is quite common. If nations and peoples were
not basically so common in culture, today's vast mutual cultural understanding
could next exist. The phrase “social physical development” verifies our point,
for if we were to evaluate a society's cultural development on the basis of its
physical production growth, finding a few common points of qualitative and
quantitative growth among some societies would definitely lead to common
cultural elements.
6 . “As an
ideology, culture represents the politics and economy of the society, which
greatly affect its socioeconomic survival.”
In comparison to an
original Chinese economic, political and legal theory –“Economic affairs,
especially those concerning production and its tools, quality and quantity make
up the most fundamental element of every aspect of human life, whether economy,
politics, morals, law, etc. -the above statement is contradicted, for it
believes that culture (an ideology) determines the socio-politics and
socioeconomics, whereas the theory states that politics, economics and even
culture are reflected by fundamentally important economic affairs. The current
harmony in manufacturing methods and financial viewpoints and also the vast
difference existing among cultures and ideologies requires more careful
attention.
Due to its political
viewpoints, the definition provided for culture in the Chinese encyclopaedia
has undergone deep reconsideration by scholars today. However, had Chinese
scholars considered their vast history and culture more carefully, they would
have found an incredible wealth of cultural elements rarely found in any other
society. Perhaps the originality of diverse cultures in China has led to the
tumultuous early to mid-20th century cultural diversities.
As The Ancient
History of Chinese Philosophy reads:
“The general trend
during this era was destructively sceptic, casting criticizing doubt upon all
basic foundations, even family and marriage. Liang Chi Chao (1873-1929), the
well-known scholar, compares it with the Renaissance in Europe. Indeed, all of
the thoughts of this era are closely related to the socio -political events
occurring then. Christianity has found strong support in China, bringing with
it Western knowledge and philosophy, particularly John Dewey's pragmatism and
Karl Marx's dynamic theories; both have had profound influence upon Chinese
intellectuals. Distinguished writers like Tolstoy, Ibsen, Guy de Moupassant,
Shelley, Emerson, Marx and Engels have had a strong effect on causing such a
novel atmosphere.” [26]
As we will see, a certain
viewpoint rising in order to determine the fate of culture cannot destroy the
original cultures of a civilized society.
“Philosophy develops
alongside other political, social, religious and artistic changes, all of which
are used to depict the culture of a country. Therefore, it would be natural for
a primary school of research criticism to arise during this last phase of total
changes, and put the new Confuscian eras of Song and Ming up to ridicule. They
are China's most meticulous critiques ever. Although their radically critical
ideology can be regarded as pragmatistic, it would still not qualify as a
philosophical school of thought, for it emphasizes the study of language and
criticizing texts rather than truly- philosophical research. Criticism, in
fact, as the most effective motivation during this era, could itself lead to a
new school of Chinese philosophical principles.
The consequent effect of
such critical spirit is the movement entitled “New Culture.” Its leaders,
hailing Western positivism and pragmatism as their major inspirations, and the
knowledge of social development and democracy as their goals, regarded the
Confucian primary school equal to their predecessors' conservatism. “Down with
Confucian and his followers,” was their motto. However, it was not easy to
demolish the ideals -of millions of Chinese people, and a struggle began -and,
sadly, still goes on.
Once, all was turned
inside out, except for China. Now, however, nothing in China has escaped
change. The most conservative nation in history has become the most radical,
and tends to demolish all traditions, once regarded valuable, all
organizations, monuments or moral and virtual norms. However, it is not
possible to destroy ancient ideas and customs established since the era of
ancient philosophers, and replace them with Marxist ideological brainwashing.
The old virtues and morals still remain engraved in peoples' minds. The Chinese
prefer harmony, compatibility and composition -none of which fit into Marxist
ideologies. Knowing this, Communists have attempted to adapt Marxist-Leninist
theories to suit traditional Chinese humanitarian beliefs.
This does not mean that
Chinese philosophy is robust, for as we have already seen, it is all but that.
Although Chinese
philosophy - as of other nations -has suffered much change and upset, very
seldom has it adopted anything from foreign cultures without adapting it
specifically to Chinese philosophy. In fact, the natural harmony within Chinese
philosophy is the key factor to its flourish. Any influences not adjustable to
its evolutional harmony have faded away.” [27]
As Durant quotes from Hu
Shih: [28]
“Taking the innovative
trends of philosophy in 5th, 4th and 3rd century China into consideration adds
to its respect.”
We must state that Hu
Shih, although a pioneer of the “New Mutiny Movement”, has intelligently
recognized how worthy his predecessors were, and thus expressed the most
important issue in his country:
“If accepting a new
civilization would mean uprooting the old rather than combining with it,
mankind would undoubtedly suffer extremely heavy losses. [29]
Therefore, the real
question is how we can adopt a new half-civilization able to adjust itself to
our own, and survive.”
Culture in the Japanese Encyclopaedias
Culture has thus been
defined in Japanese reference books: “Efforts towards making use of nature or
natural resources in order to improve man's life.
a . Knowledge,
arts, religion and man's spiritual achievements.
b . Technical
achievements equivalent to civilization. The word culture means:
1. Civilization,
2. Civilizing, and
3. Gentleness and Exquisiteness.
In the above-mentioned
definition of culture, both bringing into use natural talents and resources in
order to improve man's life, and the highest human capabilities, talents and
phenomena, e.g. science, arts, religion and other spiritual achievements have
been included.
In item b, civilization
has been cited as one of the meanings of culture. Civilization, growth,
evolution and development and other such concepts can all be regarded as
results of culture, for culture -by definition [30] -is what links all
definitions; culture determines a society's goals and ideals, and indicates
guidelines and motives to attain them. However, we must keep in mind that the
results -civilization, development and evolution -in turn affect cultural
elements.
In all, the definitions
of culture in Japanese encyclopaedias clearly affirm the evolutional,
meritorious reality of culture.
Culture as Seen in
Indian Encyclopaedias
“As a whole,
civilization in India is more alive than anywhere in the world, and one of the
oldest. Few countries have been conquered, and even fewer have such diverse climate,
traditions and languages as India. The reason why Indian civilization has
survived is the harmoniously structured legends and social values, which have
found their true identity after fifty years of struggle, gradual acceptance,
and evolutional combination. In a country as vast as India, alien occupation,
war or victory (the factors leading to harmony or decomposition in empires or
kingdoms) have not caused India to suffer the emigration of its population,
another culture replacing its own, or physical influence on its nation's
customs. The key to survival in India lies in certain organized customs,
beliefs and qualities its nation possesses; Dharma and keeping on with the four
balanced aims in life: [31] Artha, the desired ideal, Karma (deeds), Moksa
(freedom) and deliverance, all of which rule people supernaturally.
The final word on civilizational
achievement of India is that one's caste [32] or actions are determined by
one's Dharma inductions. Every individual should search, study and eventually
elevate a certain series of approved rules and duties based on the necessities
of life.
In his work Mahabharata
[33] , Krisna [34] describes Dharma as a protective activity, consisting of
social order and universal harmony, both of which prevail in the Indians'
minds. It is such a divinely universal justice that forms the rules making and
protecting the universe and logic.
Dharma has depicted and
adjusted peoples' social life and attempts towards their goals, and has been
described throughout history as the undisputed key to the existence of social
relationships and liberating forces arisen from mutual dependency and unity.
The individual end, attaining
perfection, also the communal end in culture, is achieving undisputed balance
and reality in man's universal existence and universal society (paramataman)-
worshipped and named Narayana in Indian - both of which mutually depend
on each other .
The Hindu Philosophy of
Culture
“ The most
logical, powerful and glorious representation of Indian philosophy and culture
is undoubtedly the statue of the heavenly spirit Shivamahayovara
(three sculptures in one), located in a temple on the island Elephanta.
The main face of the
absolute, bright sculpture -tatpurusa saclastiva -does not face
any direction, and is located beyond its own limits.
Aghora, the figure
on the right, looks fearsome, angry and aggressive, and is a symbol of
disapproval and destruction. The left figure, Uma, Shiva's bejewelled
wife, represents positive games and movements, love and affection.”
[35]
In Indian culture, Uma
(also called Secti), carrying a water lily, is a symbol of Artha and Karma
goals. Aghora, the right figure carrying a snake through his fingers,
symbolizes Dharma goals; Moksa, righteousness and liberty, whereas the main
figure -Tatpurusa -considers the harmonious and repetitive structure of nature,
silence and activity and peace, all to be temporary. Like any other phenomenon,
they rise, reproduce and then decompose
Universal legends and
forms, along with symbols, statues and the pictures seen in many sacred Indian books
have played a significant role in spreading Indian culture, and even provided a
framework for studying Asian cultures, and giving them form and structure.
More significant
examples of these legends are: Jatakas, Puranas, Agamas, Tantras and single
texts like Saddharma, Lalitavistara. Only through scholasticism, literature and
art can one understand the spirit of India, the inspirations throughout its
history and its relationships with the outside world. India's fundamental
cultural references, and all of its classes of people, even those descending
from nomadic, Iranian, Syrian or merchant ancestors, sooner or later were
dominated by the idea that life is temporary. The necessity of moral virtues
(Karma), emigration, belief in the existence of spiritual social ranks, the
sacred and dynamic form of family life and responsibilities, the ideal of brotherhood
among men, expressing affection for others, aesthetic attitude towards life and
its consequential emotions and desires, have arisen in a both abstract and
centralized manner.
These social virtues
-which form the generalities of a civilization must have been supernaturally
human for its basics, unity, expansion and generalization to be used frequently
throughout time, helping form empires and renaissances, and keeping people's zeal
for life burning in times of despair.
Geographical Influences
upon Cultural Expansion
Culture is an
anthropological term including everything, from the customs people follow when
they eat or produce coal to how they construct their buildings; the social,
moral and religious virtues highly popular to them, or the accepted trends used
to satisfy the more intellectual minds. The fact that India more or less
succeeded in protecting its protected cultural evolution, is partly due to the
geographical features of the country, whose location has kept it away from
excessive visitors.
Furthermore, the
Himalayan Mountains form a natural barrier in the north of India, preventing
invaders and keeping Indian culture quite safe.” [36]
The most striking fact
about Indian culture is: “The individual end, attaining perfection, also the
communal end in culture, is achieving undisputed balance and reality in man's
universal existence and universal society (paramataman) -worshipped and named narayana
in India - both of which mutually are dependent upon each other.”
Considering such evolutional
principles, belief in god and the supernatural, we should also take other
Indian cultural elements into consideration.
Indian culture is
incredibly unique among all other cultures throughout the world -whether old
and new, Western or Eastern. In a nutshell, all positive or negative
capabilities imaginable for man can be seen in Indian culture. It includes a
variety of issues, from purely scientific approaches to man and the universe,
and even absolutely mystic, philosophical and fictional approaches. As some
scholars on India have claimed, “India is like a mass of coal containing lodes
of diamond.”
1 . Here, there
is a variety of beliefs, from pure idealism to realism, from the goodness of mankind
to his lethal threats, and also a vast range of theories, speculations and
conclusions on the universe, God, egos and so on.
2 . Indian
ideologies are mainly religious, and are accepted owing to peoples' religious
faith. Will Durant's theory on it is quite worthy of consideration:
“Religion is incredibly
strong and important in India -more than any other country. The fact that Indians
have been conquered many times by alien rulers shows that they do not care who
dominates or exploits them. The main point was religion not politics; the
spirit not the body; the immortal other world, not this mortal, worthless life.
When Ashuka undertook
absolute piety, he nevertheless remained faithful to the Hindu religion, which
shows the powerful influence of this religion on even the strongest of men. In
the present century, again it was a man of piety who united all of India for
the first time throughout its history, not a politician. [37]
This proves how
profoundly critical the role of Islam has been in guiding mankind and uniting
religion and politics.
Religion cannot merely
be regarded semantically, i.e. by only considering supernatural aspects, and
ignoring materialistic, economic, legal, political and artistic affairs or
issues adjusting human life virtues, for none of man's potentials cannot
embrace reality without a logical connection between man's physical, social and
worldly affairs with his supernaturally spiritual. It is such neglect of man's
life in the four relationships (man-himself, man-God, man-universe and
man-other humans) that has led to a Persian saying, “Ever since he broke up
with his dear aunt, he's been thinking about conquering India.” Will Durant's
mistake in interpreting Ghandi's attempt to liberate India was ignoring the
fact that managing all the tedious social activities of negative resistance is
impossible without knowing the principles of politics, even though the negative
resistance against the enemy may be a religious and spiritual one; since moral,
religious, political, legal and revolutions should be based on man's original
needs, any constructive revolution must have been established on the basis of
human spiritual motives. Hence, some sociological experts have stated that any
change truly advantageous to humanity, must definitely arise from religious
motivation.
The Essence of Life in
Indian Culture
Essentialism is quite
common throughout Indian culture, although it is mostly based on emotions
rather than reasonable deduction. With the exception of feeling the existence
of God, its essence is the highest, most significant feeling of humans,
especially because the higher the essence is, the more elegantly glorious it
will be. However, there are several points of significance to be considered on
this cultural element:
a . How
valuable is well-reasoned life? Is life virtually so gloriously priceless that
man can do nothing but sacredly respect it?
This is incorrect, for
any living thing of any situation, does not necessarily possess highly valuable
merits; even man, the most complete of all creatures, is at times so
dangerously rotten that he is ready to destroy millions of lives -maybe even
the whole world -for just a few moments of his own pleasure. If man cannot
justify bloodthirsty tyrants like Ghengiz Khan or Nero, he would find no other
reality provable either. Has God truly created such glorious value in life?
The answer is yes, but
we must keep in mind that although God has granted man the potential for glory
and valour, the potential is variable; like the God-given potentials for
dignity and grace, for which if man does not choose the path of righteous
morality, he would be doomed to fall.
The phenomenon called
life is also seen thus in a value-based point of view; i.e. life is the
phenomenon which man was given the God-given potential to make real; therefore,
when used unlawfully, the potential would naturally fade away, or even turn
into anti-life and disturb other living things. In such cases, life will fall
into anti-values.
Hence, no original human
culture is able to absolutely uphold the value of life.
b . Would a
culture regarding life as so extremely valuable, allow a group of people
claiming to be supporters of culture to slay human beings influenced by
propaganda and politics, without confirming its lawful, critical necessity for
life? In other words, despite having a strong element like essentialism of
life, how does Indian culture explain the killings of Muslims there?
c. The belief
that meta-psychosis leads to a great deal of suffering and at times loss of
life -and provides the chance for greedy tyrants to ravage their country - also
needs reconsideration, for in human logic fails in such cases, the existence
of “reasonable life” would no longer be acceptable.
Having studied Indian
culture, we now address a few concepts concerning culture in the Academy of Lalitkala:
“An academy determines
national stability, as well as the perfect character, capacity and facts of life,
and continues on its way despite the immense contradictions remaining. Keeping
on with such ideas about protecting cultural heritage, establishing a knowledge
of the arts among people, and encouraging creativities and visual arts in a
vast scale, have been some our academy's goals. [38]
These statements
contradict the following, for the former describe culture as an everlasting
flow, whereas the subsequent state, “Anything going on alongside with people is
human culture. Human beings have unstable behaviour, which varies with time and
location. Human societies and behaviour have constantly changed throughout
history, and new findings and experiences have influenced man's behaviour.
Likewise, man's experiences, culture and behaviour affect all social
influences. Therefore, culture should be regarded as a part of our man-made
surroundings.”
As you see, besides
contradictions in describing culture in stability or variation, considering
human behaviour as original is also another one of the current superficial
deductions of the text. Unfortunately, such anti-cultural imitations have spread
out of Skinner and Watson’s [39] works into other societies. As we have
frequently repeated, few parts of the humanities have escaped the destructive
harm of behaviourism.
Culture in African Encyclopaedias
A. Kenya
“Culture is peoples'
lifestyle used in a certain period of time in order to deal with social,
political and economic challenges. Kenyan culture has originated from three
native communities:
1. The Cushites (the Buran,
Somali and Randil tribes)
2. The Nilotes (the Luvo,
Kolenjin and Masaee tribes)
3. The Bantu (the Kikoyo,
Lohya, Lamba and Mijkenda tribes)
Kenyan culture in
general is influenced by its tribal organizations, and is a mixture of several
native tribe cultures.” [40]
This definition is
obviously limited to the applications of culture, not its definition or
characteristics.
B. Namibia
“After Namibia declared
independence, since English was accepted as the sole official language of the
country, the definitions for culture in its reference books have also been
derived form English encyclopaedias, despite diverse cultures dominating the
various ethnical groups and tribes existing in the country.
For example, each
ethnical group tends to express respect for its own tribe's customs and
traditions in affairs like marriage, food, manners and morality as the culture
of the whole society, whereas non-native emigrants from Europe and South Africa
bring along a culture totally different from the Bushmans or other primitive tribes.
In general, the
definition may be stated as the capability of various tribes and communities to
adapt oneself with public laws.
The English-based
definition moved on to -and even accepted by -Namibia or other African societies
cannot convey the essence of “true culture” in these societies, as laws
transferred to other countries are unable to meet their real legal needs. Therefore,
it is added, “despite diverse cultures dominating the various ethnical groups
and tribes existing in the country.”
If the imported culture
exceeds the native in strength and executive quality, it would definitely
dominate the country; however, the established ideals, beliefs and logical
conscience-based ideologies are too strong to fail to resist foreign cultures.
C. Other African
Countries
By referring to expert
research on African societies, we can address culture in other countries in
Africa. Uli Bayer, for instance, has presented highly significant material.
“Delicate philosophical
thoughts and highly religious beliefs have always existed beside simple-minded superstitions
in legends; they resemble a huge ore of coal, containing randomly distributed
lodes of diamond Therefore, unless we do not extract them out of the fairy
tales through analysis of the legend and divide them into primitive thought
groups, we may never be able to discover the essence hidden inside delicate
human thoughts and legends
As a matter of fact
besides the playful lullaby-like aspect of legends and fairy tales, it is the
existence of the most original resources of human thought belonging to various
peoples in them that make researchers of philosophical thought, development
history, upholders of human conscience, anthropologists, sociologists,
theologians comparing different religions, ideologists and other scholars of
the humanities and folklore literature inevitably attracted to them.” [41]
The significant point
about culture in African countries is that, unlike other continents where
political, economical, legal and cultural changes happen gradually, highly
intense changes in Africa have since the earliest times defied the usual
process, turning primitively virtual culture into a complicated network
dominated by technology.
Clearly, African
countries have suffered two kinds of cultural invasions, which can be
categorized according to social and cultural lifestyles:
the culture of the invading
societies;
generally mechanistic
culture, relatively close to their national culture.
The rise of religious
cultures like Islam and Christianity in Africa has, of course, familiarized
them with spiritual cultures which aid them to live by principles common in
other main cultures of the world.
Culture as Seen in
Polish Reference Books
“Culture means the
series of achievements made by human civilization activities throughout its
evolution. Creative activity by people constantly enhances these achievements.
Culture also determines the extent of progress made by the society or a certain
class of people, which depends on natural forces, the level of public
knowledge, artistic creativity and forms of social coexistence. The term “culture”
is applied to various aspects, and finds different meanings in fields like
literature, scientific, texts, and everyday conversation. Many years ago,
culture was categorized to:
1. Physical culture,
meaning tools and equipment and also skills used in social production and
enrichment.
2. Mental culture,
including all scientific, artistic, social organization, and moral
achievements.
3. Individual culture,
conveying the culture of the individuals in the society.
4. Tool culture,
conveying all physical advances.
Currently, a different
type of categorization is used to define culture. On this basis, culture means:
1. How we express
(language, attitudes, behaviours),
2. Dominating nature
(industry, techniques, and health care)
3. Social organizations
(the government, law, morals, ethics)
4. Individual knowledge
(religion, the supernatural, ideology),
5. Artistic or literary
creativity, and
6. Mental activities
(knowledge, science).” [42]
Culture in Finnish Encyclopaedias
“Culture: 1. (seldom
used to convey) agriculture or planting several shrubs, 2. (main meaning)
situation of physical and spiritual accomplishments (and all of their effects)
made by man, a nation or a group of people at a certain period of time, 3. a) expanding
physical and spiritual abilities and characteristics, b) exquisite beauty in
customs, traditions, and the value expressed in the arts or generally in any
other aspects of human life”. [43]
“Culture: civilization,
agriculture; primary meaning: farming.
1. Protection and
development of natural surroundings, land, plants and animals in order to fulfil
man's vital needs.
2. Human activities and
productions achieved in technology, science, arts and religion.
3. Man's spiritual
development.
4. The essence of a
nation's (or a group of nations') greatness.
Culture can be
categorized into various cultural domains like customs, mental conceptions,
education, lifestyles, justice, politics, science, arts and religion.” [44]
The first statement – “(seldom
used to convey) agriculture or planting several shrubs” is quite significant,
for it requires the Latin meaning of culture {agriculture and other pertaining
meanings to it) -which later infiltrated into most European dictionaries and encyclopaedias
- to have been the oldest one, which has been cited by the authors as a
reminder alongside the newer meanings, Since the attention to the archaic
quality of agriculture as a meaning of culture has been fading away in Finnish
and other encyclopaedias -and even in conversation -the question is why the
French Encyclopaedia has cited planting (wheat) and fertilizing the soil as
the primary meaning?
Culture in Swedish Encyclopaedias
“Culture agriculture;
originally, cultivating the earth. More general meaning, all human activities,
also results of spiritual and physical activities passed on to the next
generations, The more common meaning of culture is spiritual development in
fields like knowledge, literature, arts and religion. In archaeology, culture
pertains to the remains of a certain geographical location at a given point of
time.” [45]
Again,
as in the previous definitions, the evolutionary, virtual quality of the vital
phenomenon, culture, has been conveyed through listing some of its effects:
“spiritual development in fields like knowledge, literature, arts and religion”,
for they are -and will always be -undoubtedly the highest ways to human
evolution.
Culture in Danish Encyclopaedias
“Derived
from the Latin word cultra, culture means agricultural,
development and production. Culture represents the series of processes used by
human beings to change natural phenomena. In its limited meaning, culture
depicts earth fertilization, raising and improving trees, production and
purification of bacteria, and the results of such development.
From
a broader point of view, it means all human activities -and their outcomes
-whether physical or non-physical, which are passed on to the next generation
in form of social heritage, rather than genetically.
In
philosophy, culture traditionally pertains to individuals, representing man's
objective activities concerning himself, his environment, self-enhancement and
attaining the highest moral virtues.
Sociologically
speaking, man is part of a whole. Therefore, the term “culture” should be
considered in association with society .Thus, the definition for culture would
be: the vast and complex series of knowledge, ideologies, arts, morals, traditions
or any capability acquired by man as a member of society. [46]
Sociology basically
draws a line between physical and non-physical culture. Furthermore, it tries
to combine culture with society, since it considers all human
phenomena to be dependent upon social culture. Thus, social roles are to some
extent determined by culture. In fact, when people are colloquially regarded as
cultured, it merely means how close they are to the culture of the higher
social classes, and “high or low” culture actually shows how similar peoples'
culture is to 18th or 19th century European or American culture.” [47]
The Danish encyclopaedia’s
definition and description of culture brings us to several points:
1. Culture is
the knowledge acquired through mental and physical activities used by man in
order to change his natural surroundings.
2. “In its
limited meaning, culture depicts earth fertilization, raising and improving
trees, production and purification of bacteria, and the results of such
development.”
The phrase “limited
meaning” in the above statement lacks precision. As in other dictionaries and encyclopaedias,
it would have been more appropriate had it been regarded as the primary, or one
of the other meanings of culture.
3 . The general
meaning of culture includes “all human activities -and their outcomes -whether
physical or
non-physical,
which are passed on to the next generation in form of social heritage rather
than genetically”
This
statement clearly depicts the (relative) stability of cultures -which is
absolutely correct, for phenomena and activities heading for destruction cannot
have a role in establishing the fundamental basics of man's virtually proper
lifestyle.
4. “In philosophy, culture traditionally pertains
to individuals, representing man's objective activities concerning himself, his
environment, self- enhancement and attaining the highest moral virtues.”
This
statement obviously approves that culture is an objective human activity
pertaining to man's own self, his peers, his environment and also his
self-development aiming for the highest spiritual virtues, clearly an
evolutional phenomenon.
5. The sociological claim, “Man is part of a whole…..”
is absolutely correct, and in approval of almost every encyclopaedia published
by civilized countries all around the world.
6. “Sociology....tries to combine culture with
society, considering the fact that all human phenomena are dependent
upon social culture.”
The
point here is that, if human development and evolution had been followed as a
principle throughout history, philosophical and sociological approaches would
have enhanced each other, rather than fall separate.
7. One of the final statements reads, “when we
speak of 'high and low' culture, we actually mean how close people's culture is
to 18th and 19th century European and American culture.”
The author(s) have
astonishingly based the criterion for high or low culture on 18th and 19th
century cultures of Europe and America, whereas other societies, e.g. Eastern
countries, possess cultures much better established, more delicate and more
evolutional.
Culture Seen in Turkish
Reference Books
“Culture is consisted of
a nation's way of thought and works of art resulted in by imitation, criticism
and experiences acquired throughout life; any lifestyle caused by connecting
thoughts with hearing; improving thought levels and standards of social life
through criticism, appreciation, comparison and gathering necessary
information.”
The significant point in
these statements is, “improving the level of thought and standards of social
life through Criticism, appreciation, Culture is, of course, a factor in
improving thoughts and social lifestyles. The point lacking attention here is
the evolutional aspect of culture, which has been emphasized by almost all
distinguished encyclopaedias around the world.
Here are more statements
on culture quoted from another Turkish reference book:
“The word “culture”
found its way into the Turkish language from French and Latin after young Turks
came to office in 1910, when Mustapha Kamal began vast cultural changes; it
generally means civilizations remaining from the past. Its other meanings are:
a nation or peoples'
specific cultural or civilizational change;
one's knowledge and
cultural learning;
purifying on element or
substance of unwanted alien material;
biological processes in
agriculture, or raising-various bacteria.”
Culture in the Encyclopaedia
of Human Rights
Culture, every human's
right to contribute to cultural life, has been presented in the World Treaty on
Human Rights as:
Article 1027: Every
human being is entitled to the right to live freely, contribute to his
society's cultural lifestyle, and enjoy its scientific and artistic advantages.
Everyone has the right to be provided with material and moral support caused by
scientific endeavours or literary and artistic works.
This right has been
further emphasized in the Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Article 1051: All member
countries of this treaty are in official agreement on these rights for every
human being:
a. to contribute to
cultural life;
b. to use the advantages
of scientific advances and its applications;
c. to be physically and
morally supported for one's scientific literary or artistic accomplishments.
Article 2015: Members of
this treaty are to play an active role towards the achievement of these ends by
means of developing science and culture.
Article 3015: Members of
this treaty totally agree on the right of free research in scientific and
creative domains.
Article 4015: All
members of the treaty acknowledge the necessity of international cooperation
towards scientific and cultural development.
Defending human rights
against racial injustices in cultural issues has been emphasized in this
treaty.
Article 5: In accordance
with the fundamental rights stated in Article 2 of this treaty, all members pledge
to prevent any kind of racial injustice -whether in race, skin colour,
nationality or ethnic group -so that any human being can enjoy equal rights,
especially in:
a . economics,
particularly social and cultural rights;
b. the right to
participate in cultural activities. The treaty also prohibits any kind of
sexist, biased injustice or cruelty to women.
Article 13: Membering
countries are to make any effort towards dealing with socioeconomic injustices
to women, so that women and men may have equal rights, particularly in sports
events and all cultural activities.
The UNESCO officially
undertakes the responsibility of safeguarding and supervising support and
development of cultural rights. The UNESCO relies on these agreements in order
to attain its goals: the UNESCO treaty on protecting cultural possessions
during military invasion, approved on May 14, 1954, also known as the Hague
Treaty; its protocol, May 14, 1954; the UNESCO treaty on preventing smuggling,
importing or exporting cultural monuments and objects, November 14, 1970; the
treaty on the protection of cultural heritage, November 16, 1972; the statement
on the Principles of Cultural International Cooperation, November 14, 1966; the
UNESCO statement on Principles of Satellite Transmitter Usage for Free
Information flow, and Cultural Exchange, November 15, 1972 and also the UNESCO
statement on Mass Media Participation and Role in Enhancing Peace and
International Relationships, and Protecting Human Rights; Fighting Racial
Injustice and War, November 28, 1978.
Other approved
agreements aiming to protect cultural rights include an article obliging all
museums to be available to all people, December 14, 1960; recommendations on
preventing illegal import or export of cultural objects, November 19, 1964;
recommendations on national support of cultural and natural heritage, November
16, 1972; recommendations on the protection of historical places, November 26,
1976; recommendations on the protection of contemporary historical monuments,
November 28, 1978; UNESCO'S advice on the situation of artists, October 27,
1980, along with the international treaty on social and cultural rights
sanctioned by the Socio-economical Commission on May 11, 1976, according to
which the UNESCO is to regularly report to the commissions the progress in
issues concerning its duties in the rights explained in Article 18. Information
on the progress of the contents of Article 15 of the treaty -on the right to
attend cultural activities -are recorded as UNESCO's economical, legal, cultural
and social rights advances. [48]
Points of Common
Approval between Islamic Culture and Human Rights
1. Both Islamic Culture
and the Human Rights agree on items (a) and (b) for Article 1027.
2. Items (a), (b), and (c)
of Article 1015 are also culturally agreed upon.
3. Likewise Articles
2015, 3015, 4015 and 5.
4. In Article 13, the
two cultures do not agree in their approaches to the different rights
considered for men and women. [49]
The Criterion in Islamic
Culture
Any cultural phenomenon
or activity opposing the highest human virtues, like morals or religion, is
unacceptable in Islam. Culture, or any phenomenon or culture arising as culture
in the society which is in conflict with human dignity and the perfectionistic
tendencies in man, however attractive it may be, is prohibited by Islam.
This is the most
important duty of a dynamic culture, which is strongly supported in Islam.
Footnotes:
[1] Borhan-e-Qate
(The Undefiable Proof), by Mohammad Hussein Khalaf Tabrizi.
[2] Jahangiri Dictionary.
[3] The Persian
Encyclopaedia, see culture.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid.
[8] See Lessan-ol-Arab,
al-marja; also Al-Monjad, thaqaf.
[9] Encyclopaedia,
by Farid Vadjdi, see thaqaf.
[10] The current
encyclopaedias, e.g. Farid Vadjdi's, do not mention any of the recent
discussions, or fervid research done on culture.
[11] Al-Monjad,
see Adab.
[12] It has been said
that Imam Ali (a) wrote these Arabic verses.
[13] Culture de masse.
[14] Dictionary Encyclopédique
Noms Communs, Hachette, 1991.
[15] Jean Mathieu, Dictionary
Etymologique, Rosay, Paris, 1992.
[16] See Culture: A
Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, by A.L Kroeber and
Clyde Kluckhohn, quoted in the Encyclopaedia Americana.
[17] Africa,
Legend of Creation by Uli Bayer.
[18] History of
the World, Hamilton, Vol.1.
[19] Life Nature and
the origins of Evolution Oparin
[20] 1bid
[21] International
Grolier Encyclopaedia
[22] World Book
Encyclopaedia.
[23] The National
Identity of Argentina, by Juan Jose.
[24] p 142
[25] Constantinov. Encyclopaedia
of Philosophy.
[26] The ideas of such
personalities would definitely differ a great deal, or even contradict. Merely
supposing that they were influential in the Chinese society, sufficiently
proves that China must have possessed a culture to prepare its intellectuals to
accept such a vast range of diverse - or contradicting -schools of thought.
[27] Chu Jai, Winberg, Ancient
History of Chinese Philosophy, and Will Durant, History of Civilization,
Vol.1.
[28] Hu Shih
(1891-1962), Chinese philosopher.
[29] Will Durant, History
of Civilization, Vol.1.
[30] See p.1
[31] The four elegant
Buddhist realities forming the base of Buddhism.
[32] Indian religious
sect.
[33] The great legendary
Hindu book.
[34] One of the three
Hindu Gods described in Mahabharata.
[35] Radha Kamal Mukerjee,
The Culture of India.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Will Durant,
History of Civilization. Vol. I
[38] The Encyclopaedia
of India.
[39] Contemporary originalist
theorists.
[40] The Encyclopaedia
of Kenya.
[41] Uli Bayer, Africa,
Legends of Creation
[42] The General
Encyclopaedia.
[43] The Finnish
Dictionary.
[44] The Finnish
Encyclopaedia
[45]
Bra Bokers Lexicon.
[46] Quoted from Edward
Burnett Tyler, English anthropologist.
[47] The Gylelendals
Encyclopaedia.
[48] The Encyclopaedia
of Human Rights.
[49] For a further
detailed treatise, see M.T. Ja'fari, Universal Human Rights: from the
Viewpoints of Islam and the West. pp.292-306