Chapter 1
The Beginning
of the Belief in the Mahdi
Dr. Emami:
When did the belief in Mahdi become prevalent in the Islamic environment?
Was there any conversation about the Mahdi during the time of
the Prophet (peace be upon him and his progeny) or was it after
his death that the belief became widespread among Muslims? There
are some who have written that there was no Mahdiism in the beginning
of Islam. It was only in the second half of the first century
(7th century CE) that the idea appeared among the Muslims. There
was a group that regarded Muhammad b. Hanafiyya as the Mahdi and
gave the good news to the people about the good fortune Islam
would acquire through him. The same group believed that Muhammad
b. Hanafiyya had not died but he was living in Mt. Radwa and one
day would return."
Mr. Hoshyar:
The belief in Mahdi was widespread during the time of the Prophet.
The Prophet (peace be upon him and his progeny) on more than one
occasion had announced the future coming of the Mahdi. From time
to time he would inform the people about the government of the
Mahdi and the signs of his emergence, giving his name and patronymic
(kunya). There are numerous hadith-reports that
have come down to us from both the Sunni and the Shi'i sources
on this subject. Actually some of these reports have been related
so frequently, and without interruption in all ages, that nobody
can doubt their authenticity. For instance, we read the following
hadith reported from 'Abd Allah b. Mas'ud, who heard the
Prophet say:
The world will not come to an end until a man
from my family (ahl al-bayt), who will be called al-Mahdi,
emerges to rule upon my community.[1]
Another tradition reported by Abu al-Hujaf
quotes the Prophet saying three times:
Listen to the good news about the Mahdi! He
will rise at the time when people will be faced with severe conflict
and the earth will be hit by a violent quake. He will fill the
earth with justice and equity as it is filled with injustice and
tyranny. He will fill the hearts of his followers with devotion
and will spread justice everywhere.[2]
The Prophet has declared:
The Day of Resurrection will not take place
until the True Qa'im rises. This will happen when God permits
him to do so. Anyone who follows him will be saved, and anyone
who opposes him will perish. O servants of God, keep God in your
mind and go towards him even if it happens to be on the ice, for
indeed he is the caliph of God, the Exalted and Glorified, and
my successor.[3]
In another hadith the Prophet is reported
to have said: "Any one who denies al-Qa'im among my children
will have denied me."[4]
In still another hadith the Prophet
assured his community by stating:
The world will not come to an end until a man
from the descendants of Husayn takes charge of the affairs of
the world and fills it with justice and equity as it is filled
with injustice and tyranny.[5]
The Mahdi
from among the Descendants of the Prophet
Such hadith-reports are abundant. The
main idea that runs through all of them suggests that the topic
about the future coming of the Mahdi and Qa'im during the time
of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his progeny) was well known.
In fact, the way these reports speak about the subject indicates
that it was not something new which was being presented to the
people. On the contrary, they relate the signs and characteristics
of the person who would emerge as the Mahdi, as in the statement
"the promised Mahdi will be among my descendants."
The following traditions reflect such a pattern
in their presentation. It is reported from 'Ali b. Abi Talib who
said:
I asked the Prophet: "Is Mahdi going to
be among our own family or from some other?" He replied:
"He will be among us. God will conclude His religion through
him, just as He began it with us. It will be through us that people
will find refuge from sedition, just as it was through us that
they were saved from polytheism. Moreover, it will be through
us that God will bring their hearts together in brotherhood following
the animosity sown by the sedition, just as they were brought
together in brotherhood in their religion after the animosity
sown by polytheism."[6]
Abu Sa'id al-Khudari, a close associate of
the Prophet says:
I heard the Prophet declare from the pulpit:
"The Mahdi from among my descendants, from my family, will
rise at the End of Time, while the heavens will pour rain and
the earth will bring forth green grass for him. He will fill the
earth with justice and equity as it is filled with tyranny and
injustice."[7]
In another tradition from Umm Salma, the wife
of the Prophet, there is even more specific information given
to the community. The Prophet says: "Mahdi will be among
my progeny, among the children of Fatima."[8]
On another occasion the Prophet said:
The Qa'im will be among my descendants. His
name will be my name and his patronymic will be my patronymic.
His character will be like my own. He will call people to my custom
and to the Book of God. Anyone who obeys him would be obeying
me, and any one who turns away from him would be turning away
from me. Anyone who denies his existence during his concealment
would have denied me, and anyone who falsifies him would have
falsified me. Anyone who confirms his existence would have confirmed
my existence. As for those who are engaged in falsifying what
I have said about him and thereby mislead my community, I will
complain against them to God. "Those who do wrong shall surely
know by what overturning they will be overturned." [28:228]
[9]
Abu Ayyub Ansari says:
I heard the Prophet (peace be upon him and
his progeny) say: "I am the chief of the prophets and 'Ali
is the chief of the legatees. My two grandsons are the best among
the descendants. The infallible Imams will come forth from among
us through Husayn. Moreover, the Mahdi of this community is among
us." At that time an Arab stood up and asked: "O Prophet
of God, how many Imams are there after you?" He replied:
"Equal to the number of the apostles of Jesus and the chiefs
of the Children of Israel." [10]
A tradition with similar information has been
cited from Hudhayfa, another companion of the Prophet, who heard
the Prophet declare:
The Imams after me will be equal to the number
of the tribal chiefs among the Children of Israel. Nine among
them will be the descendants of Husayn. The Mahdi of this community
is among us. Beware! Truth is with them and they are with truth.
Thus be careful of the way you treat them after me. [11]
In still another tradition Sa'id b. Musayyib
reports from 'Amr b. 'Uthman b. 'Affan, who said:
We heard from the Prophet saying: "The
Imams after me will be twelve in number, of whom nine will be
from the progeny of Husayn. Moreover, the Mahdi of this community
will be among us. Anyone who holds on to them after me holds on
to the rope of God; and whoever abandons them has abandoned God."
[12]
There are numerous hadith-reports of
this kind in the sources which one can undertake to examine.
The Sunni
hadith on the Subject of the Mahdi
Dr. Fahimi:
Mr. Hoshyar! Our friends know it. But let me tell you that I follow
the Sunni school of thought. Hence, the positive evaluation that
you have of the Shi'i hadith-reports, I do not share. In
all likelihood, extremist Shi'is, for whatever reasons, after
having accepted the narratives about the Mahdiism, must have fabricated
traditions in support of their views and ascribed them to the
Prophet. The evidence for my contention is that the traditions
about the Mahdi are recorded only in your Shi'i books. There is
no trace of these in our authentic -- Sihah -- compilations.
Yes, I am aware that there are some traditions on the subject
in our less reliable compilations.[13]
Mr. Hoshyar:
In spite of the most unfavorable conditions under the Umayyads
and the `Abbasids, whose politics and oppressive governments did
not allow the discussion or the spread of hadith about
wilayat and imamat and the ahl al-bayt or
their being recorded in the books of the hadith, your compilations
of hadith are not completely void of any traditions on
the subject of the Mahdi. If you are not tired I may cite some
of them for you.
Engineer Madani:
Mr. Hoshyar! Please continue your conversation.
Mr. Hoshyar:
Dr. Fahimi! In your compilations, the Sihah, there are
chapters devoted to the subject of the Mahdi in which traditions
from the Prophet have been recorded. For example, the following:
'Abd Allah reports from the Prophet, who said:
"The world will not come to pass until a man from among my
family, whose name will be my name, rules over the Arabs."
Tirmidhi has recorded this hadith in
his Sahih [14] and comments: "This
hadith on the Mahdi is reliable, and has been related by
'Ali b. Abi Talib, Abu Sa'id, Umm Salma and Abu Hurayra":
'Ali b. Abi Talib has narrated from the Prophet,
who said: "Even if there remains only a day on earth, God
will bring forth a man from my progeny so that he will fill the
earth with justice and equity as it is filled with tyranny."[15]
In another hadith Umm Salma narrates
that she heard the Prophet say: "The promised Mahdi will
be among my progeny, among the descendants of Fatima."[16]
Abu Sa'id al-Khudari says:
The Prophet said: "Our Mahdi will have
a broad forehead and a pointed nose. He will fill the earth with
justice as it is filled with injustice and tyranny. He will rule
for seven years." [17]
'Ali b. Abi Talib has related a tradition from
the Prophet who informed him:
The promised Mahdi will be among my family.
God will make the provisions for his emergence within a single
night. [18]
Abu Sa'id al-Khudari has related a tradition
from the Prophet who declared:
The earth will be filled with injustice and
corruption. At that time, a man from among my progeny will rise
and will rule for seven or nine years and will fill the earth
with justice and equity.[19]
Greater detail is provided in another hadith
reported by Abu Sa'id al-Khudari. In this tradition the Prophet
said:
Severe calamity from the direction of their
ruler will befall my people during the Last Days. It will be a
calamity which, in severity, shall be unprecedented. It will be
so violent that the earth with injustice and corruption will shrivel
for its inhabitants. The believers will not find refuge from oppression.
At that time God will send a man from my family to fill the earth
with justice and equity just as it is filled with injustice and
tyranny. The dwellers of the heavens and the earth will be pleased
with him. The earth will bring forth all that grows for him, and
the heavens will pour down rains in abundance. He will live among
the people for seven or nine years. From all the good that God
will bestow on the inhabitants of the earth, the dead will wish
to come to life again.[20]
There are numerous traditions that convey these
meanings in your books. I believe we have cited enough reports
to make our point.
The Objection
Raised by One of the Authors:
Dr. Fahimi:
The author of the book entitled: Al-Mahdiyya fi al-islam
writes:
Muhammad b. Isma'il Bukhari and Muslim b. Hajjaj
Nishaburi, the compilers of the two most authentic books of the
Sunni hadith, who recorded these traditions meticulously and with
extreme caution in verifying their reliability, have not included
traditions about the Mahdi in their Sihah. Rather, these traditions
are part of the compilations of Sunan of Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah,
Tirmidhi, Nasa'i and Musnad of Ahmad b. Hanbal. These compilers
were not careful in selecting traditions and their hadith-reports
were regarded by scholars like Ibn Khaldun as weak and unacceptable.[21]
Ibn Khaldun
and the Traditions about the Mahdi:
Mr. Hoshyar:
To elaborate on the topic of the reliability of the hadith
on the Mahdi, let us cite Ibn Khaldun's opinion on the matter
in full:
It has been well known (and generally accepted)
by all Muslims in every epoch, that at the end of time a man from
the family (of the Prophet) will without fail make his appearance,
strengthen Islam and make justice triumph. Muslims will follow
him, and he will gain domination over the Muslim realm. He will
be called the Mahdi....Such traditions have been found among the
traditions that religious leaders have published. They have been
critically discussed by those who disapprove of them and have
been often refuted by means of certain traditions.[22]
This was the summary of the opinions held by
Ibn Khaldun. He then proceeds to mention the transmitters of these
hadith and critically evaluate their reliability or lack
thereof, as held by the scholars of transmitted sciences.
Let us respond to some points raised by Ibn
Khaldun:
1: Uninterrupted Transmission
(tawatur) of the Traditions
Numerous Sunni scholars have recognized the
traditions about the Mahdi to have been uninterruptedly transmitted.
They have in fact transmitted them uninterruptedly from other
sources without raising objections to them. Among these scholars
are Ibn Hajar Haythami, in al-Sawa'iq al-muharriqa; Shablanji,
in Nur al-absar; Ibn Sabbagh, in al-Fusul al-muhimma;
Muhammad al-Saban in As'af al-raghibin; Kanji Shafi'i in
al-Bayan; and so on. Such an uninterrupted transmission
of these traditions compensates for the weakness found in their
chain of transmission. According to 'Asqalani, a tradition that
is reported in every generation uninterruptedly leads to establish
its veracity, and an action taken based upon it is not subject
to dispute.[23]
A similar opinion is held by Sayyid Ahmad,
Shaykh al-Islam and the Shafi'ite Mufti, who writes that the traditions
about the Mahdi are numerous and mutawatir. Among these
some are 'sound' (sahih), others are 'good' (hasan),
and still others are 'weak' (da'if). However, he says,
the majority are weak traditions and, since they are numerous
and their reporters are also in large number, some go towards
strengthening the others, and lead to their acceptance as reliable.[24]
Among those who narrate the hadith about
the Mahdi are a group of prominent companions of the Prophet.
These include: 'Abd al-Rahman b. 'Awf, Abu Sa'id al-Khudari, Qays
b. Jabir, Ibn 'Abbas, Jabir, Ibn Mas'ud, 'Ali b. Abi Talib, Abu
Hurayra, Thawban, Salman Farisi, Hudhayfa, Anas b. Malik, Umm
Salma, and others. Among the Sunni authors who have included these
traditions in their books are: Abu Dawud, Ahmad b. Hanbal, Tirmidhi,
Ibn Majah, Nasa'i, Tabrani, Abu Nu'aym Isfahani and numerous other
compilers of the hadith.
2: Weak Transmission Is
Not an Issue in All Places:
It is important to state that most of the persons
who are recognized as being weak in their transmission and are
mentioned by Ibn Khaldun have also been accredited by others.
In fact, even Ibn Khaldun
mentions some of them. Moreover, the
weakening of the transmission of a hadith does not have
absolute preponderance over its being approved as reliable because
special characterization is a subjective matter. Whereas a certain
characteristic of a tradition might render it a weak tradition
in accord with one researcher, another investigator might find
quite the opposite. Hence, the opinion of the former can be accepted
only if the reason for rendering a tradition weak is made clear.
In his Lisan al-mizan 'Asqalani says:
The weakening of the tradition assumes preponderance over its
accreditation when the reason for doing so is made explicit. Otherwise,
the opinion of the person rendering the tradition weak has no
value.
Abu Bakr Ahmad b. 'Ali al-Baghdadi writes:
It must be pointed out that as for the traditions accepted and
used as evidence by Bukhari, Muslim and Abu Dawud, although some
of their transmitters have been criticized and have been declared
unreliable, the reason for their criticism and unreliability has
not been well established and proven by them. Moreover, he says,
if weakness and reliability of a tradition are of equal weight,
then its weakening is preponderant. However, if weakness is less
obvious than reliability, then there could be varying opinions
about that tradition. The best way to resolve this problem of
authenticating a tradition is to say that if the reason for weakness
is mentioned and if that reason is convincing, then weakness has
preponderance over reliability. But if the reason is not mentioned,
then reliability has preponderance over weakness. [25]
To be sure, we can not generalize and state
with absolute certainty that in all places of dispute over the
reliability of a tradition, its being regarded as weak has preponderance
over its being considered as reliable. If all points of weakness
are made effective, then there would be very few traditions that
would be spared from criticism. It is, therefore, important that
in such cases careful analysis and rational evaluation are carried
out to clarify the truth.
3: Unreliable Simply Because
of Being Shi'i
Often a tradition is deemed weak because its
transmitter is a Shi'i. For example, Ibn Khaldun, rejected Qutn
b. Khalifa, one of the transmitters of the Mahdi traditions, because
he was a Shi'i. In this connection he quotes 'Ijli saying that
Qutn was good in hadith, but he was somewhat inclined towards
Shi'ism. Again, according to Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah b. Yunus and
Abu Bakr b. 'Ayyash, Qutn was unreliable and his traditions were
rejected because of his 'corrupt' beliefs. On the other hand,
there were others like Ahmad b. Hanbal, Nasa'i, and so on, who
accredited him and regarded his traditions reliable.[26]
Another transmitter by the name of Harun was
also regarded as weak because, as Ibn Khaldun tells us, he and
his sons were Shi'ites. Some hadith scholars regarded Yazid
b. Abu Ziyad a weak transmitter because "he was the leader
of the Shi'is" and that he was among the Shi'is of Kufa.
Commenting on 'Ammar al-Dhahabi, Ibn Khaldun tells us that although
prominent traditionists like Ahmad b. Hanbal, Nasa'i and others
had regarded him reliable, Bishr b. Marwan, because of his Shi'ism,
considered him weak. Also 'Abd al-Razzaq b. Humam's traditions
were regarded as weak because he narrated traditions relating
the merits of the family of the Prophet and was famous for his
Shi'ism. [27]
4: Difference of Creed
Another excuse used to discredit traditions
reported by some pious and truthful individuals was the difference
in creed. For example one of the sensitive issues that generated
lots of debate and led to an inquisition at that time was that
of the createdness of the Qur'an. There were some in the community
who believed that the Qur'an was not created in time, and hence,
was eternal. Others believed that it had appeared at some point
in time and, hence, was created. These two groups were engaged
in not only heated arguments, but also mutual condemnation. A
number of the narrators of the hadith believed that the
Qur'an was either created in time or that indicated that they
had doubts about the issue. These narrators were discredited and
condemned.
The author of Adwa' 'ala al-sunna al-muhammadiya
writes:
The scholars had condemned a group of narrators
like Ibn Lahi'a as unbelievers. Their sin was their belief that
the Qur'an was created. Moreover, it is said that Muhasibi did
not accept the inheritance from his father because, he said: "Those
who are dualists do not inherit from each other. I do not want
my share of inheritance from my father." The reason for his
refusal was that his father was a waqifi, that is, he was doubtful
in expressing his opinion whether the Qur'an was created or not.
[28]
Just as extreme religious prejudices and differences
became the cause for overlooking the trustworthiness and truthfulness
of the narrators (thereby rejecting what they reported), shared
belief on a matter and belonging to the same school of thought
generated unwarranted trust of the narrators, whose unreliability
and corrupt character were overlooked. The situation was so critical
that instead of verifying the credibility of the narrator they
actually accredited them. Thus, for example, according to 'Ijli,
'Umar b. Sa'd was among the reliable transmitters of the second
generation of the companions of the Prophet, whose traditions
people had recorded. This evaluation is contrary to the generally
held fact that he was responsible for the murder of Imam Husayn
(peace be upon him), whom the Prophet had declared the chief of
the youth in Paradise and his beloved grandson.[29]
Such was the case with Bisr b. Artat, who received
an official assignment from Mu'awiya. He had massacred thousands
of innocent Shi'is and used to publicly curse 'Ali b. Abi Talib,
the Prophet's caliph. However, such a person of low character
has been excused for these heinous deeds and has been regarded
as an independent and learned authority in jurisprudence.[30]
Regarding 'Utba b. Sa'id, Yahya b. Mu'in writes:
He is reliable. Nasa'i, Abu Dawud, and Daraqutni
have also regarded him trustworthy. On the other hand, 'Utba b.
Sa'id was a companion of the wicked Hajjaj b. Yusuf.
It is not difficult to see the double standards
that were applied in accreditation of the traditions reported
by individuals whom they favored. Bukhari accepted the traditions
reported from Marwan b. Hakam in his Sahih, and relied
upon them. And yet Marwan was one of the major causes of the Battle
of the Camel, having encouraged and instigated Talha to fight
against 'Ali. Then, during the battle, the same Marwan killed
Talha.[31]
The author of Kitab adwa' draws our
attention to the fact that careful analysis of what these scholars
did to authenticate Marwan clearly shows an endeavor to promote
a wicked person like Marwan, who favored killing 'Ali, actually
killed Talha, and was responsible for the murder of Husayn b.
'Ali. On the other hand, hadith compilers like Bukhari
and Muslim discredited prominent scholars and memorizers of the
Prophetic traditions like Hammad b. Maslama and the pious and
god-fearing Makhul, simply because of their disagreement on some
issues related to the creed.[32]
All in all, if any person narrated traditions
in praise of the family of the Prophet and 'Ali b. Abi Talib or
related traditions agreeing with the Shi'i beliefs, some staunchly
Sunni scholars suspected their hadith reports to be unreliable
or declared them unconvincing. If this was the treatment of those
suspected of Shi'i leanings, then hadith reported by those
whose Shi`ism was public knowledge received even more blunt treatment.
Their traditions were rejected outright. One need only read Tabari's
books to fathom the prejudicial treatment given to the narrators
whose beliefs were contrary to the mainstream Sunni faith. According
to Muslim, the compiler of the Sahih Muslim, Tabari says:
"I met Jabir Ju'fi. But I did not record any tradition from
him because he believed in raj'a (return of the dead before
the emergence of the Mahdi)."[33]
5: Unfounded Prejudice
It is obvious that to pursue an agenda and
to follow prejudice is not conducive to objective research. Anyone
who intends to do research about a subject and to get to the truth
of a matter must discard his unfounded prejudices against and
hatred towards it, and then begin his investigation. When, during
the process of the investigation, a piece of evidence is found
in a tradition, one should investigate its narrator in order to
prove his reliability. If the narrator's reliability is confirmed
then his tradition should be accepted, regardless of whether he
is a Sunni or a Shi`i. It is against the rule of fairness and
the method of investigation that the traditions of a reliable
narrator be rejected simply because he happens to be a Shi'i or
is accused of being one. In fact, fair minded scholars among the
Sunnis have been aware of this prejudice.
In this connection 'Asqalani comments:
One of the instances when one should pause
in accepting the opinion of the person who is engaged in discrediting
a narrator is to investigate whether there exists a difference
in the matter of creed between the person who is engaged in discrediting
and the narrator who is being discredited. For example, Abu Ishaq
Jawzjani was a Sunni who hated the ahl al-bayt (a nasibi) while
the people of Kufa were famous for their Shi`ism. Hence, he discredited
the Kufan narrators in the most severe terms. Accordingly, people
like A'mash, Abu Nu'aym and 'Abd Allah b. Musa, although the leaders
and pillars of narrators of hadith, were declared unreliable by
him. Qushayri says: "The motives of the people resemble the
pits of fire." Consequently, in such instances, a statement
about the narrator's reliability has preponderance over a statement
about his unreliability.[34]
Similarly, Muhammad b. Ahmad b. 'Uthman Dhahabi,
following his account about Aban b. Taghlib's life, writes:
If some one objects to why we declare him trustworthy,
in spite of the fact that Aban was among the people of innovation
(i.e., Shi'is), I say thus: Innovation is of two kinds. One is
a lesser type like the extremism in Shi`ism, or Shi`ism without
extremism and sinful deviation. This kind of innovation was common
among a number from the second and third generation of the companions
of the Prophet, in spite of the fact that their piety and moral
probity were beyond reproach. If it is decided that the traditions
reported by such narrators should be rejected, a large number
of Prophetic traditions would necessarily have to be rejected.
The wrongness of such an opinion is self-evident. The second type
of innovation is of a greater type, such as the complete rejection
[of the first three caliphs] and the cursing of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.
Indisputably, the traditions reported by this group have no value
and should be rejected.
In short, anyone who undertakes research and
wants to discover truth, should not accept such statements of
the unreliability of a narrator at face value. Rather, he should
try to uncover the reason for discrediting a narrator and whether
that person truly deserves such a judgement.
6:Sahih Muslim and Sahih
Bukhari and Traditions about the Mahdi
It is important to emphasize that if the traditions
about the Mahdi were not recorded by Bukhari and Muslim, this
does not mean that the reports were weak in transmission. After
all, these two compilers had no intention of shedding light on
all the traditions. According to Bayhaqi, Muslim and Bukhari did
not intend to search for all the traditions. The evidence is provided
by the inclusion of numerous traditions that were recorded by
Bukhari and which are not part of Muslim's collection. At the
same time, there are traditions in the Sahih of Muslim
which were avoided by Bukhari.[35] Just as
Muslim claimed to have recorded only the authentic traditions
in his compilation, so did Abu Dawud in his collection. This latter
fact has been observed by Abu Bakr b. Dasa who heard Abu Dawud
say: "I have recorded 4,800 traditions in my collection of
which all are either reliable or close to reliable." In addition,
Abu al-Sabah confirms that it was reported to him that Abu Dawud
made a similar claim about the traditions in his compilation,
Sunan, adding that if he included a weak tradition he made
that clear. "Hence any tradition about which I have not made
any comment should be regarded as reliable." A similar positive
opinion about Abu Dawud's Sunan has been related from Khatabi
in the introduction to the present edition by Sa'ati.[36]
In short, the traditions in Muslim and Bukhari are not different
in reliability from the traditions recorded by other authors of
the Sahih. What is important is that their transmitters
should be investigated in order to establish their credibility
or the lack thereof.
To be sure, the Sahihs of Muslim and
Bukhari, whose authority is accepted by all the Sunnis, are not
completely devoid of traditions about the Mahdi, although the
term mahdi has not been used to express this belief among
Muslims. Following is one such hadith:
It is reported from Abu Hurayra that the Prophet
said: "What will be your reaction when the son of Mary descends
and your Imam is among yourselves?" [37]
There are a number of other traditions on a
similar theme in these two compilations. It is also important
to bear in mind that Ibn Khaldun has neither totally falsified
all the traditions about the Mahdi, nor has he claimed that he
does not accept them. The context of Ibn Khaldun's remark about
these traditions is provided by his opening statement in this
section when he says:
It has been well known (and generally accepted)
by all Muslims in every epoch, that at the end of time a man from
the family (of the Prophet) will without fail make his appearance,
who will strengthen Islam and make justice triumph. Muslims will
follow him, and he will gain domination over the Muslim realm.
He will be called the Mahdi.
It is evident that he has briefly accepted
the fact that the belief in the awaited Mahdi is common among
Muslims. Moreover, after his critical evaluation of the traditions
and their transmitters he concludes the discussion with the following
observation:
This is the situation of the traditions about
the awaited Mahdi. It has been seen in the books that, with the
exception of very few, most of these traditions are regarded as
unreliable.[38]
Hence, even at this point he has not rejected
all the traditions on the subject. Rather, as he confesses, some
of them are authentic.
Furthermore, it is relevant to point out that
the traditions on the subject of the Mahdi are not confined only
to those mentioned and critically evaluated by Ibn Khaldun. Quite
to the contrary, most of the books on hadith, both by the
Sunnis and the Shi`ites, narrate traditions in an unbroken chain
of transmission which actually comes close to their verification
as being credible. Had Ibn Khaldun known about the existence of
all these traditions, he would have probably regarded the belief
in the Mahdi as deeply rooted in the Islamic revelation.
To conclude this discussion, we can say that
it is incorrect to maintain, as some scholars do, that Ibn Khaldun
rejected the tradition about the Mahdi. On the contrary, it is
these authors who have read into Ibn Khaldun such an opinion.
Other Opinions
from Ibn Khaldun:
Ibn Khaldun concludes this section on the traditions
concerning the Mahdi thus:
The truth one must know is that no religious
or political power's propaganda can be successful, unless power
or group feeling exists to support the religious and political
aspirations and to defend them against those who reject them,
and until God's will concerning them materializes. We have established
this before, with rational arguments which we presented to the
reader. The group feeling among the Fatimids and Talibids, indeed,
that among all the Quraysh, has everywhere disappeared. The only
exception is a remnant of the Talibids -- Hasanids, Husaynids,
and Ja'farites -- in the Hejaz, in Mecca, al-Yanbu', and Medina.
They are spread over these regions and dominate them. They are
Bedouin groups. They are settled and rule in different places
and hold divergent opinions. They number several thousands. If
it is correct that a Mahdi is to appear, there is only one way
for his propaganda to make its appearance. He must be one of them,
and God must unite them in the intention to follow him, until
he gathers enough strength and group feeling to gain success for
his cause and to move people to support him. Any other way --
such as a Fatimid who would make propaganda for (the cause of
the Mahdi) among people anywhere at all, without the support of
group feeling and power, by merely relying on his relationship
to the family of Muhammad (peace be upon him) -- will not be feasible
or successful, for the sound reasons that we have mentioned previously.[39]
In response to this assertion by Ibn Khaldun
it must be pointed out that there is no doubt that anyone who
wishes to revolt and gain power so as to establish a government
must have the unquestioning support of his followers in order
to reach that goal. Similar conditions must be fulfilled in the
case of the awaited Mahdi and his universal revolution. However,
it is not necessary to require that his supporters be among the
descendants of 'Ali and the Quraysh. The reason is that if the
government and leadership is based on ethnic and group feeling
then the support has to come from that feeling. Moreover, these
should be the ones to support him unquestioningly. This was certainly
true in the case of ethnic groups and dynasties that came to power
by means of this sense of loyalty and solidarity. In general,
a government that comes to power through the specific and limited
sense of group feeling is necessarily dependent upon a specific
and limited group of supporters. This is true in all such cases
of nationalistic, ethnic, and ideological states.
However, if a government is founded upon a
specific program, then it has to gain support of those who favor
it. And this order can succeed only if a group recognizes the
value of the program and desires to implement it by supporting
the leadership that is committed to it. The revolutionary program
of the Mahdi is of this kind. The Mahdi's program is profoundly
universal. It desires that humanity, which is being driven into
extreme forms of materialism and opposition to divine commands,
respond to the divinely ordained system which rests upon moral
and spiritual goals. It wishes to resolve the problems facing
humanity by clarifying the boundaries in such a way as to remove
any cause of conflict in society. It wants to bring people together
under the banner of the Unity of God and universalize submission
and service to God. Such a program, if implemented, would end
tyranny and injustice and spread peace through justice all over
the world.
In order to achieve this universal goal it
is not sufficient to rely on the leadership of the descendants
of 'Ali, who are spread all over the Hejaz, and to expect that
the group feeling would help the Mahdi to reach his universal
goal. To be sure, there is a need for the peoples of the entire
world to prepare themselves to respond to the call of the Mahdi.
Besides the divine endorsement of this program, the Mahdi's victory
is dependant upon a reasonably large and earnest group of people,
who, being aware of the merits of the divinely ordained system,
would seriously aspire to see such an order implemented. Moreover,
they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for that cause.
Consequently, if the people see an infallible and incontestable
leader who has access to the divine plan for humanity and has
divine endorsement of his program, they would not hesitate to
assist him in establishing the ideal public order, even if this
means that they would have to sacrifice their lives.
The Existence
of the Mahdi is Certain
There are numerous Prophetic traditions about
the Mahdi, reported by both the Sunni and the Shi'i sources. Close
examination of the contents of these traditions proves that the
subject of the future coming of the Mahdi and the Qa'im was a
well established tenet during the Prophet's life time. People
anticipated someone who would take upon himself to establish truth
and spread the worship of God. Moreover, they expected that person
to take charge of purifying the earth and instituting justice.
The belief was so wide spread among the people that having verified
it in principle they were engaged in discussing its details. Sometimes
they would ask: "From which family would the awaited Mahdi
arise?" At other times they wanted to know his name and patronymic.
Still at other times they wanted to know the reason why he was
called the Mahdi. They wanted to know about his revolution and
asked about the signs of his appearance. They also wanted to find
out if the Mahdi and the Qa'im were one and the same person. They
were told about the Mahdi's occultation and wanted to understand
the reasons and the obligations of his followers while he was
in occultation. The Prophet also, from time to time, used to inform
people about the existence of the Mahdi. He would inform them
saying: "Mahdi will be among my descendants. He will be among
the sons of Fatima, among the descendants of Husayn." At
other times he would announce his name and patronymic and give
information about the signs of his reappearance and other related
matters.
The Discussion
among the Companions and the Subsequent Generations:
After the Prophet's death the story of the
coming of the Mahdi was often heard among the prominent companions
of the Prophet and the following generation. The matter was regarded
among the religious truths and was treated as one of the certain
future events. The following are some examples of this in the
sources:
Abu Hurayra says: "People will pay allegiance
to the Mahdi between rukn and maqam."[40]
Ibn 'Abbas is reported to have told Mu'awiya that a person among
the descendants of the Prophet will rule for forty years at the
End of Time. On another occasion a man asked Ibn 'Abbas to inform
him about the Mahdi. He said: "I hope that in the near future
a young man from our family (the Hashimite) will arise to put
an end to civil strife and sedition."[41]
Ibn 'Abbas also specified the descendant of the Prophet as being
from the children of Fatima. According to another famous companion
of the Prophet, 'Ammar Yasir: "At the time when Nafs al-Zakiyya
is killed a caller from the heaven will say: 'Your commander is
so-and-so.' Following it the Mahdi will emerge and fill the earth
with justice and equity."[42]
'Abd Allah b. 'Umar mentioned the name of Mahdi
in the presence of an Arab who said: Mahdi is Mu'awiya b. Abu
Sufyan. 'Abd Allah said: "It is not as you say. Mahdi is
a person behind whom Jesus will offer his prayers."[43]
'Umar b. Qays asked Mujahid if he knew anything
about the Mahdi, since he did not believe in what the Shi'a were
saying about him. Mujahid said: "Yes, I do. One of the Prophet's
companions told me that the Mahdi will not appear until that time
when Nafs al-Zakiyya will be killed. At that time he will take
the command and will fill the earth with justice and equity."[44]
Nufayl's daughter 'Umayra narrates that she
heard Hasan b. 'Ali's daughter saying: "This affair about
which you are waiting will not occur until among you some seek
to distance themselves from the others and curse each other."[45]
The author of Maqatil al-talibiyin Abu al-Faraj Isfahani
writes that Fatima, Husayn b. 'Ali's daughter, used to engage
in midwifery as a voluntary service to the women of Banu Hashim.
Her son used to object to her saying: "We are afraid that
you will be recognized as a professional midwife." In reply
she would say: "I am awaiting someone. As soon as he is born
I will stop assisting in delivery."[46]
Qatada asked Ibn Musayyib: "Is the existence
of Mahdi a truth?" He said: "Yes. He is a member of
the Quraysh, among the descendants of Fatima." A similar
tradition is reported from the famous scholar Zuhri, who also
related that the Mahdi will be among the descendants of Fatima.
Abu al-Faraj reports an event when Walid b. Muhammad was with
Zuhri and a clamor transpired. Zuhri asked Walid to find out what
had caused it. After finding out Walid reported: "Zayd b.
'Ali has been killed and his head has been brought." Zuhri
was upset and said: "Why is this family in haste? Haste has
destroyed a number of them." Walid asked: "Will they
reach power?" He replied, "Yes, because 'Ali b. Husayn
narrated to me on the authority of his father who heard this from
Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, who, in turn, heard the Prophet
tell her: 'Mahdi will be among your descendants.'" In another
place Abu al-Faraj reported a tradition from Muslim b. Qutayba,
who said: "One day I went to visit Mansur, the 'Abbasid caliph.
He said: 'Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah has revolted and has announced
that he is the Mahdi. By God, he is not the Mahdi. Let me tell
you something. I have not told nor will I tell this to anyone
else besides you. My son Mahdi is not the one mentioned in the
traditions. I have just named him Mahdi as a good omen.'"[47]
Other sources that mention these traditions
include the following:
Ibn Sirin used to say that the promised Mahdi
will be from this Umma. He will be the one who will lead Jesus
in prayers. In another place he reports a tradition from 'Abd
Allah b. Harith. He said: "The Mahdi will arise at the age
of forty and will resemble the Children of Israel." A variant
of this tradition reported by Artat says that the Mahdi will arise
at the age of twenty. Another tradition in the same section explains
the reason Mahdi was named thus. Ka'b says: "He was named
Mahdi because he will be guided to the hidden matters." 'Abd
Allah b. Shurayk used to relate that the Prophet's standard will
be with the Mahdi.[49]
Ibn Sirin records several other traditions
that speak about the function of the Mahdi. One of these reported
from Hakam b. 'Uyayna says that the reporter asked Muhammad b.
'Ali al-Baqir:
We have heard that one among your ahl al-bayt
will arise and will establish justice and equity. Is this true?
He said: "We are also awaiting his appearance and living
in hope."
In another tradition Salma b. Zafar reports:
One day people were talking about the appearance
of the Mahdi in the presence of Hudhayfa. Hudhayfa said: "If
Mahdi has indeed appeared while you are living close to the Prophet's
period and while his companions are living among you, then you
are truly fortunate. However, that is not the case. Mahdi will
not appear until people are devoured by oppression and tyranny
and there is no one absent more beloved and more needed than him."[50]
People were so familiar with the characteristics
of the Mahdi that Jarir, the Arab poet, read the following lines
of his poem for the Umayyad caliph 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz in which
he compares the caliph with the future Mahdi:
Your presence is a blessing. Your conduct is
the conduct of the Mahdi. You are fighting your lower self, and
you spend the night in recitation of the Qur'an.[51]
Muhammad b. Ja'far reports that he once told
Malik b. Anas his misfortunes. He said: "Wait until the significance
of the verse of the Qur'an: 'Yet We desired to be gracious to
those that were abased in land, and to make them leaders, and
to make them the inheritors (27:5),' becomes materialized."[52]
People
Awaited the Appearance of the Mahdi
From all the references to the Mahdi and his
appearance in the sources, it is obvious that people were awaiting
the coming of the Mahdi from the early days of Islam, and were
actually counting the days for that to happen. They regarded the
establishment of the legitimate government through his emergence
a certainty. This anticipation used to get intense during times
of political turmoil and unfavorable social conditions. People
expected that the emergence would take place imminently. On many
occasions they would adhere to the false pretender or would regard
some person to be truly the promised Mahdi. Those whom people
thought were the promised Mahdi included the following:
(1) Muhammad b. Hanafiyya:
Since he had the name and patronymic of the
Prophet, there was a group that believed him to be the Mahdi.
According to Tabari, when Mukhtar b. Abu 'Ubayd Thaqafi wanted
to revolt against the Umayyads and exact revenge from those who
had murdered the grandson of the Prophet, Husayn, he ascribed
Mahdiism to Muhammad b. Hanafiyya. And he claimed to be his envoy
and his deputy and showed the letters he had brought with him
to the people.[53]
Ibn Sa'd tells us that when people wanted to
greet Ibn Hanafiyya they would address him thus: "Peace be
to you, O Mahdi!" And he would reply: "Yes, I am the
Mahdi, and I shall guide you towards the straight path and prosperity.
My name is the same as the name of the Prophet, and my patronymic
is also his patronymic. Whenever you want to greet me say: 'Peace
be to you O Muhammad; peace be to you O Abu al-Qasim!'"[54]
This and other similar reports indicate that
one of the signs of the appearance of the promised Mahdi was the
combination of the Prophet's name and patronymic for a person.
This is the reason Ibn Hanafiyya made a reference to this fact
for himself. However, careful investigation of historical sources
reveals that it was not Ibn Hanafiyya who made such claims for
himself. It was others, like Mukhtar, who introduced him thus.
On his part, sometimes Ibn Hanafiyya kept silent on the matter,
confirming the attribution to him. This policy was probably followed
with the hope that the murderers of Karbala would be avenged and
the Islamic leadership would revert to its rightful holder. This
is supported by another report in which Ibn Hanafiyya tells the
people: "Be aware that the rightful people have a government,
which will be established when God desires it. Anyone who witnesses
it will be fortunate and anyone who predeceases it will enjoy
the blessings of God in the hereafter."[55]
Muhammad b. Hanafiyya, in a sermon that he
delivered in the presence of some seven thousand people, said:
"You have hastened in this matter. Yet, among your descendants
are people who, with the help of the family of the Prophet, will
wage war against the enemies of God. The government of the family
of the Prophet is not concealed from anyone. However, its materialization
will take time. I declare solemnly in the name of the One in whose
hand is Muhammad's life, the rule will return to the Prophet's
family."[56]
(2) Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah b. Hasan:
This was another descendant of the Prophet,
whom people accepted as the Mahdi. According to Abu al-Faraj,
when Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah was born the family of the Prophet
rejoiced and quoted the Prophet saying: "The name of the
Mahdi is Muhammad." As such, they were hopeful that Muhammad
would be the promised Mahdi. They used to adore him. In the gatherings
he was mentioned frequently and the Shi'is used to give each other
good news about his impending appearance.
In another place Abu al-Faraj reports an account
which says that when Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah was born he was named
Mahdi with the expectation that he was the Mahdi promised in the
earlier sources. However, the leaders of the Talibids used to
call him nafs al-zakiyya and, in accord with the divine
decree, he would be killed in Ihjar Zayt. One of the slaves of
Abu Ja'far Mansür relates that he was told by Mansur to go
and sit near the pulpit and listen to his lectures. Once he heard
him say: "Do not entertain any doubt that I am the Mahdi,
and the reality is also thus." The slave reported the incident
to the Caliph who said: "By God, Muhammad is telling falsehood.
The truth is that the promised Mahdi is my son." [57]
Salma b. Aslam composed lines about Muhammad
b. 'Abd Allah in which he said: "That which is reported in
the traditions will materialize when Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah appears
among the people and takes charge of the affairs with his hands.
Muhammad has a special ring, which God has not given to anyone
except him. There will be signs of piety and goodness in him.
We hope that Muhammad will be the Imam through whose blessed existence
the Qur'an will come to life again. Moreover, through his existence
Islam will be revived and reformed, and the poor orphan children
and needy families will again live in prosperity. He will fill
the earth with justice and equity as it is filled with corruption.
And our hopes and aspirations will be fulfilled."[58]
The Jurists
of Medina and the Mahdi Traditions:
When Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah revolted one of
the jurists of Medina by the name of Muhammad b. 'Ajlan also rose
with him. After he was killed, Ja'far b. Sulayman, the governor
of Medina, summoned Muhammad b. 'Ajlan and asked him: "Why
did you rise with that liar?" He then ordered his hands to
be cut. Other jurists who were present in the court at that time
interceded on his behalf, emphasizing that Muhammad b. 'Ajlan
was a pious jurist of Medina and had erroneously regarded Muhammad
b. 'Abd Allah as the Mahdi promised in the traditions.[59]
Another well-known jurist and a prominent scholar
of the hadith, 'Abd Allah b. Ja'far also rose with Muhammad
b. 'Abd Allah. When the latter was killed he fled from Medina
and remained in hiding until he was granted amnesty. One day the
governor of Medina passed by him and asked him the reason why
he arose with Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah, in spite of his learning
in the law and traditions. He replied: "The reason I supported
and cooperated with him was that I was confident that he was the
promised Mahdi, about whom we have been informed in the traditions.
I did not doubt Muhammad's Mahdiism until I saw him killed. At
that time I knew he was not the Mahdi. I will not fall into anyone
else's hoax from now on."[60]
From such accounts it is evident that the subject
of the Mahdiism was widespread from those early days of Islam,
close to the period of the Prophet. It was accepted as an absolute
religious truth and people were awaiting the Mahdi. It was for
this reason that the common people, who knew little about the
signs for the appearance of the Mahdi and who were downtrodden,
believed that Muhammad b. Hanafiyya and Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah
and other pretenders were the promised Mahdi. However, the scholars
and those who were well informed about the ahl al-bayt,
including Muhammad's own father, knew that he was not the promised
Mahdi.
A man came to see 'Abd Allah b. Hasan and asked
him when his son Muhammad would rise. He replied: "As long
as I have not been killed, he will not rise." The man sighed
and said: "From God we originate and to God we shall return.
If Muhammad is killed, the umma will collapse." 'Abd
Allah said to him: "That is not the case." The man continued
and asked when would Ibrahim rise. He said: "As long as I
am not destroyed, he will not rise. He too will be killed."
Once again the man uttered the same verse and declared that the
community had indeed undertaken the path of destruction. 'Abd
Allah replied: "That is not so. Actually their master, the
promised Mahdi, is twenty five years old. And at the time that
he rises he will kill all the enemies." When Marwan was told
that Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah had revolted, he said: "Neither
he nor any other person sharing his father's genealogy is the
promised Mahdi. Rather, he will be the son of a slave girl."
Whenever the Imam Ja'far Sadiq would see Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah
he would cry and say: "May my life be a sacrifice for him.
People are speculating that he is the promised Mahdi. On the contrary
he will be killed. Indeed, his name is not mentioned among the
caliphs of this community in the book of 'Ali."[61]
A group of people were sitting around Muhammad
b. 'Abd Allah when the Imam Sadiq entered the place. Everyone
stood up in respect. He inquired about the affairs and they replied
that they had decided to pay allegiance to Muhammad who was the
Mahdi. The Imam said: "I advise you to desist from doing
so, because the time for the rise of the Mahdi has not approached
yet. Moreover, Muhammad is not the Mahdi."[62]
The Poetry
of Di'bil and the Mahdi:
When Di'bil b. 'Ali al-Khuza'i presented his
famous lines in the presence of Imam Rida, he ended his poem with
the following lines:
No doubt an Imam will rise -- an Imam who will
govern according to the name of God and the [divine] blessing.
These lines underscore the certainty with which
Di'bil mentioned the rising of the Imam who will rule in the name
of God and with God's blessings. On hearing this, Imam Rida wept
and said: "The blessed angel has put these words in your
mouth. Do you know this Imam?" Di'bil said: "No. But
I have heard that an Imam among you will rise and will fill the
earth with justice and equity." Imam Rida said: "After
me my son Muhammad will be the Imam; following him his son 'Ali
will be the Imam; and after 'Ali his son Hasan will be the Imam.
Following Hasan his son will the Proof of God and the Qa'im, who
should be awaited while he is in occultation. And when he appears
he should be obeyed. He is the one who will fill this earth with
justice and equity. But the time of his emergence has not been
fixed. However, it has been reported by my ancestors that he would
appear all of a sudden and in a flash of a moment."[63]
There are numerous such reports in the historical
sources which, if you wish, you can investigate.
*******
It was quite late at night and the meeting
was adjourned. It was decided that the group would meet the following
Friday afternoon.
Notes:
- The hadith is reported in the majority
of the Sunni sources. However, here we cite Majlisi,
Bihar al-anwar, Vol. 51, p. 75, who has actually compiled
these reports from all the sources in one place, making it convenient
to refer to them. Se also, Ithbat al-hudat, Vol. 1, p.
9.
- Bihar al-anwar,
Vol. 51, p. 74
- Bihar al-anwar,
Vol. 51, p. 65; Ithbat al-hudat, Vol. 6, p. 382
- Bihar al-anwar, Vol. 51,
p. 73.
- Ibid., Vol. 51, p. 66.
- Ibid., Vol. 51, p. 84; Ithbat
al-hudat, Vol. 7, p. 191; Majma`
al-zawa'id by `Ali b. Abi Bakr Haythami (Cairo edition), Vol.
7, p. 317.
- Bihar al-anwar,
Vol. 51, p. 74; Ithbat al-hudat, Vol. 7, p. 9.
- Bihar al-anwar,
Vol. 51, p. 75.
- Bihar al-anwar,
Vol. 51, p. 73.
- Ithbat al-hudat,
Vol. 2, p. 531.
- Ibid., p. 533.
- Ibid., p. 526.
- Hasan, Sa`d Muhammad, al-Mahdiyya
fi al-islam (Cairo, 1373), p. 69;
Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima (Cairo edition), p. 311.
- Sahih,
Vol. 9, p. 74; also, see: Shaykh Sulayman, Yanabi` al-mawadda
(1308 AH edition), Vol. 2, p. 180; Muhammad b. Yusuf al-Shafi`i,
al-Bayan fi akhbar sahib al-zaman (Najaf edition), p. 57;
and other Sunni sources.
- Abu Dawud, Sahih,
Vol. 5/207; see also all the sources mentioned in note s 2. In
addition, see: Shablanji, Nur al-absar, p. 156; Ibn Hajar,
al-Sawa'iq al-muharriqah, p. 161; Ibn Sabbagh, Fusul
al-muhimma, p. 275; al-Saban, As'af al-raghibin.
- Abu Dawud, Sahih,
Vol. 2, p. 207; Ibn Majah, Sahih, Vol. 2, p. 519, and the
sources mentioned in note s 3.
- Abu Dawud, Sahih,
Vol. 2, p. 208; Fusul al-muhimma, p. 275; and numerous
other Sunni sources.
- Ibn Majah, Sahih,
Vol. 2, p. 519. Also, Ibn Hajar, al-Sawa'iq al-muharriqa,
p. 161.
- Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad,
Vol. 3, p. 27.
- Ibn Hajar, al-Sawa'iq
al-muharriqa, p. 161; Yanabi'
al-mawadda, Vol. 2, p. 177.
- al-Mahdiyya fi al-islam,
p. 69.
- Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddimah,
p. 311.
- Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, Nuzhat
al-nazar, p. 12.
- Futuhat al-islamiyya,
Mecca edition, Vol. 2, p. 250.
- Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, Lisan
al-mizan, Vol. 1, p. 25.
- Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddimah,
p. 313.
- Ibid., p. 319.
- Abu Rayya, Mahmud, Kitab
adwa', p. 316.
- Ibid., p. 319.
- Ibid., p. 321.
- Ibid., p. 317.
- Ibid., p. 319.
- Sahih muslim,
Vol. 1, p. 101.
- Lisan al-mizan,
Vol. 1, p. 16.
- Sahih muslim,
Vol. 1, p. 24.
- See the introduction to the
Sunan abi Dawud
by Sa'ati.
- Sahih muslim,
bab nuzul 'isa, volume 2; Sahih bukhari, kitab
bad' al-khalq wa nuzul 'isa, volume 4.
- Muqaddima,
p. 322.
- Muqaddima,
p. 327.
- Ibn Tawus, Kitab
al-malahim wa al-fitan, p. 64. Rukn
and maqam are two sacred spots in the grand mosque of Mecca.
- Ibid., p. 84.
- Ibid., p. 179.
- Ibid.
- Ibid., p. 171.
- Majlisi, Bihar
al-anwar, Vol. 52, p. 211.
- Maqatil al-talibiyin,
p. 160.
- Maqatil al-talibiyin,
p. 167.
- Kitab al-hawi li al-fatawa,
Vol. 2, p. 135.
- Ibid., p. 147-150.
- Ibid., p. 159.
- Ibn Qutayba, al-Imama
wa al-siyasa, Vol. 2, p. 117.
- Maqatil al-talibiyin,
p. 359.
- Ta'rikh,
Vol. 4, pp. 449-494; Ibn Athir, Kamil al-tawarikh, Vol.
1, p. 339, 358.
- Tabaqat al-kubra,
Vol. 5, p. 66.
- Ibid., Vol. 7, p. 71.
- Ibid., Vol. 5, p. 80.
- Ibid., pp. 165 and 157.
- Ibid., p. 163.
- Ibid., p. 193.
- Ibid., p. 195.
- Ibid., p. 143.
- Ibid., p. 141.
- Yanabi' al-mawadda,
Vol. 2, p. 197.
